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FormL-9-15,«-10.-25 


M1NNESL  I A 

COURSE  OF  STUDY 


FOR 


ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


AND 


MANUAL  FOR  TEACHERS 


Prepared   by 

THEDA  GILDEMEISTER 

Sometime  Critic  Teacher,  Principal  Elementary  School 

Supervisor  of  Training,  Teacher  of  Methods 

State  Normal   School,  Winona,  Minnesota 


JONES  &  KROEGER  COMPANY 

Publishers 

WINONA,  MINN. 


3GIIG 


Copyright,  1916,  1918,  including  "Diagram,"  Theda  Gildemeister. 

FIRST   EDITION: 

First  Printing,   December,  1916. 

Second  Printing,  June,   1917. 

SECOND    EDITION: 
First  Printing,  April,   1918. 


Insubstantial  Paper  Binding,  75c  Post  paid 
In  attractive  Cloth  Binding,  $1.25  Post  paid 
Diagram  sold  separately.    .  .      5c  per  copy 


12 


M 

AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

For  a  long  time,  workers  in  the  field  of  elementary  education  in 
Minnesota  felt  the  need  of  a  state  course  of  study.  About  twelve 
years  ago  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  Mr.  J.  W.  01- 
sen,  had  prepared  and  published  an  elementary  course  of  study. 
This  proved  most  valuable,  but,  during  1913,  a  committee,  author- 
ized by  the  Minnesota  Educational  Association,  prepared  a  report 
(Bulletin  No.  51)  which  dealt  largely  with  the  elimination  of  sub- 
ject-matter, and  pointed  out  the  need  of  a  revised  study  course  to 
serve  alike  city,  village,  and  rural  schools.  This  very  general  need 
of  a  revised  and  enlarged  course  of  study  for  elementary  schools 
was  unanimously  recognized  by  state  and  local  school  supervisors. 

In  consideration  of  these  facts,  in  the  fall  of  1915,  Mr.  C.  G. 
Schulz,  State  Superintendent  of  Education,  laid  plans  for  the  prep- 
aration of  such  a  course. 

Although  the  mechanical  work  on  the  book  occupied  but  a  year, 
it  was  really  "in  the  making"  a  much  longer  period,  for  it  embodies 
not  only  the  experience  of  the  author,  but  that  of  the  many  teach- 
ers and  students  of  education  who  generously  helped  to  make  the 
work  what  it  is.  To  all  of  these  the  author  acknowledges  her  debt 
and  tenders  her  gratitude. 

With  the  increased  responsibilities  thrown  upon  the  schools  be- 
cause of  changing  social  conditions,  teachers  have,  today,  not  only 
to  be  better  prepared  to  begin  their  work,  but  they  must,  more  than 
ever  before,  keep  growing  professionally. 

One  means  of  such  growth  is  a  course  of  study,  broad  enough  in 
outlook,  to  bear  repeated  readings  with  fresh  interpretations  at 
each  forward  step  in  the  reader's  professional  progress.  The  hope 
that  this  course  might  prove  such  an  one  is  in  part  realized,  for, 
during  the  past  few  months,  those  who  have  most  persistently 
studied  the  course  speak  of  what  they  "continue  to  discover"  in  it. 
That  the  hope  may  be  completely  realized,  and  that  the  Minne- 
sota Course  of  Study  may  be  a  definite  factor  in  the  growth  of 
many  teachers  is  the  wish  of  its  author. 

Theda  Gildemeister. 
Winona,  Minn.,  March,  1918. 


PUBLISHERS'  PREFACE 

The  facts  that  earnest  teachers  have  found  the  Minnesota 
Course  of  Study  increasingly  valuable  with  use,  and  that  in  its  one 
short  year  of  life,  with  no  advertising  of  any  kind,  it  has  been  called 
for  by  teachers  and  school  officers  in  over  half  of  the  states  in  our 
Union  as  well  as  in  Canada,  give  sufficient  proof  that  it  is  pos- 
sessed of  more  than  local  value.  Indeed,  from  all  quarters  of 
the  United  States,  there  has  come  a  general  expression  of  approval 
of  the  following  features: 

Its  evident  freshness,  or  departure  from  the  stereotyped  course  of  study; 

Its  clear  statement  of  a  basic  philosophy  of  education; 

Its  emphasis  on  the  unity  of  all  school  work; 

Its  recognition  and  use  of  stages  of  human  development  in  the  selection  and 
distribution  of  subject-matter,  so  as  to  secure  correlation  within  a  grade,  and 
cumulative  results  throughout  the  grades; 

Its  possible  use  with  any  good  text-bobk,  and  with  any  group  of  children; 

Its  definite  help  to  beginning  teachers  in  such  matters  as:  Preparation  for 
the  First  Day  of  School,  Discipline,  Program  Making,  Alternation  of  Subjects 
or  Classes,  and  Type  Lesson  Plans;  and 

Its  opportunities  for  initiative  on  the  part  of  the  experienced  teacher,  as,  for 
example,  in  the  way  certain  subjects  are  outlined  in  detail  in  grades  where  they 
are  begun  or  need  special  emphasis,  but  are  left  for  the  teacher  to  outline  in  other 
grades. 

The  first  edition  of  the  Minnesota  Course  of  Study  was  pub- 
lished by  the  State  Department  of  Education,  and  distributed, 
without  charge,  to  the  schools  of  Minnesota.  Many  teachers 
wished  to  own  copies,  but  the  state  could  not,  by  law,  sell  any. 
Nor  could  the  state  supply  the  calls  from  teachers  outside  the  state. 
Hence  a  small  sales  edition,  with  which  the  State  Department  had 
no  connection,  was  issued,  and  soon  exhausted.  Permission  was 
then  obtained  from  the  state  and  the  author  to  publish  this  second 
edition,  for  distribution  in  other  states,  as  well  as  in  Minnesota, 
where  it  may  be  used  as: 

An  authorized  course  of  study  in  states  having  none; 

A  supplementary  course  of  study  in  states  having  their  own  prescribed 
courses; 

A  Teachers'  Reading  Circle  book;  and 

A  text-book  in  Normal  Schools,  County  Training  Schools,  High  School  Train- 
ing Departments,  and  summer  Institutes.  In  all  these  places,  it  has  already 
proved  valuable  as  a  Pedagogy  or  General  Methods  book  in  its  treatment  of 
aims,  materials,  and  methods  of  education;  and  as  a  text  in  Special  Methods  for 
primary,  intermediate,  and  grammar  grade,  as  well  as  for  rural,  courses,  by 
choosing  the  material  suited  to  each.  It  has  also  been  used  by  many  depart- 
mental teachers  in  Normal  schools,  in  connection  with  their  "Method"  courses. 

The  selection  and  distribution  of  the  subject-matter  found  in  this 
Course  of  Study  are  based  on  such  universal  laws  of  education,  that 
teachers  in  other  states  than  Minnesota  will  find  only  a  few  places 
where  local  references  must  be  translated  into  those  of  their  own 
states.     The  book  is  usable  wherever  the  English  tongue  is  spoken. 

Except  for  a  few  corrections  the  text  and  paging  are  identical 
with  those  of  the  first  edition.  This  was  done  so  that  teachers 
who  already  own  copies  could  use  the  Diagram  (or  summary)  and 
Index,  two  valuable  additions  found  in  the  second  edition,  without 
necessarily  buying  a  new  book. 
March,  1918.  Jones  &  Kroeger  Co.,  Publishers. 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Author's  Preface 3 

Publishers'  Preface         4 

Table  of  Contents, 5 

A  Teacher's  Pledge,  by  G.  E.  Maxwell, 8 

Diagram,  Summarizing  the  Contents, Four  Page  Insert 

Index 303 

PART    I.— COURSE    OF    STUDY. 

Purpose  of  this  Course  of  Study, 9 


SCHOOL  SUBJECT-MATTER  AND  ITS 
DISTRIBUTION  BY  GRADES. 

I.— ENGLISH. 

A.  Interrelation  of  the  Language  Arts, 11 

B.  Language, 12-71 

Penmanship,  pp.  18,  22,  29,  35,  41,  48,  54,  62;  Spelling,  pp.  18,  23,  29, 
36,  41,  48,  54,  62;  Grammar,  pp.  63-71.  Grade  I,  p.  15;  Grade  II, 
p.  19;  Grade  III,  p.  24;  Grade  IV,  p.  30;  Grade  V,  p.  37;  Grade  VI, 
p.  42;  Grade  VII,  p.  49;  Grade  VIII,  p.  55. 

C.  Reading, 71-105 

Phonics,  pp.  78,  82,  85;  Dictionary  Work,  pp.  88,  90,  92,  95,  98-105. 
Grade  I,  p.  73;  Grade  II,  p.  80;  Grade  III,  p.  83;  Grade  IV,  p.  86; 
Grade  V,  p.  88;  Grade  VI,  p.  90;  Grade  VII,  p.  93;  Grade  VIII,  p.  95. 

II.— MATHEMATICS. 

A.  Arithmetic,         104-125 

Place  in  School-Work,  p.  104.  Grade  I,  p.  106;  Grade  II,  p.  107; 
Grade  III,  p.  110;  Grade  IV,  p.  112;  Grade  V,  (Common  Fractions,) 
p.  115;  Grade  VI,  (Decimal  Fractions,)  p.  118;  Grade  VII,  (Per- 
centage,) p.  120;  Grade  VIII,  p.  122. 

III.— SCIENCE. 

A.  Geography,         ...  126-148 

Preliminary  to  Grade  III,  p.  127;  Grade  III,  p.  129;  Grade  IV,  p.  131 ; 
Grade  V,  p.  133;  Grade  VI,  p.  136;  Grade  VII,  p.  141;  Grade  VIII, 
p.  144. 

B.  Nature-Study,         148-151 

Illustrative  Topics  for  all  Grades,  p.  150. 

C.  Physical  Education,         151-156 

Its  Function,  p.  151;  Means  of  Securing  a  Sound  Body,  Mind,  and 
Character,  outline,  p.  152;  Play,  Games,  Sports,  pp.  152,  153;  Physi- 
ology and  Hygiene,  outline,  pp.  153,  154;  Exercises  for  the  Grades, 
p.  155;  Adaptation  of  Course  to  Local  Conditions,  p.  155. 


IV.— INDUSTRY. 

A.  The  Industrial  Arts, 156-164 

B.  Thrift, 164 

C.  Vocational  Guidance, 164 

V.— CITIZENSHIP. 

A.  History,         165-177 

Outline  of  the  Course,  p.  166.  Grades  I,  II,  III,  p.  167;  Grade  IV, 
p.  170;  Grade  V,  p.  171;  Grade  VI,  p.  173;  Grade  VII,  p.  174;  Grade 
VIII,  p.  175. 

B.  Civics,    ....  177-182 

Outline  of  the  Course,  pp.   178-181.     Forming  and  Conducting  a 
Club,  p.  181. 

C.  Moral  Training,  and  Ethics, 183-190 

Need  of  Such  a  Course,  p.  183;  Methods  Outlined,  p.  184.  Grades 
I,  II,  and  III,  p.  185;  Grades  IV  and  V,  p.  1S6;  Grade  VI,  p.  187; 
Grades  VII  and  VIII,  p.  188.  School  Character-Chart,  by  Fair- 
child,  p.  189. 

VI.— FINE  ART. 

A.  Music, 191 

Outlined  by  Grades,  pp.  192-196. 

B.  Drawing, 197 

Outlined  by  Grades,  p.  198. 

C.  Literature, 199 

Summarized  by  Grades,  p.  200. 


PART   II.— MANUAL    FOR   TEACHERS. 

Basis  for  the  Minnesota  Course  of  Study,  p.  201.     Analysis  of  Human  Ad- 
justments, p.  202.     Origin  of  School  Subject-Matter,  p.  203.     Factors 
in  the  Selection»and  Distribution  of  School  Subject-Matter,  p.  206. 

I.  Suggestions  to  Teachers, 207 

This  Course  of  Study  for  all  Teachers,  p.  207.  Beginners,  p.  209. 
Experienced  Teachers,  p.  212.  Rural  Teachers,  p.  212.  Grade 
and  Departmental  Teachers,  p.  214.  High-  and  Normal-School 
Training-Teachers,  p.  214.  Superintendents,  Principals,  and  Super- 
visors, p.  215. 

II.  Time  Allotment  of  Subject-Matter,  and  Program  Making,       .      .   215 

Time  Allotment — Discussion  and  Distribution,  p.  215.  Program 
Making — Factors  in;  Sample  Programs  for  all  Grades,  City  and 
Rural,  p.  217. 

III.  Selection  of  Text-Books,         224 

Readers,  p.  225;  Arithmetics,  p.  226;  Geographies,  p.  227;  General, 
p.  227. 

IV.  Helps  ok  English, 228 

A.  Outline  Showing  Detailed  Interrelation  of  the  Language  Arts,  p. 

22S. 
I'..    Hcginning-Reading    Lesson-Plans,    p.    230;    Imperative-Sentence 

Plan,  p.  230;  The  Little  Red  Hen,  p.  232;  The  Gingerbread  Boy, 

p.  234;  The  Key  to  the  King's  Garden,  p.  236. 

C.  Reading- Plans  for  Older  Grades,  p.  237.  Lessons  from  "Viking 
Tales,"  for  Third  and  Fourth  Grades,  p.  237.  A  Fifth-Grade  Les- 
son, "The  Coast-Guard, "  p.  241. 

D.  Aids  in  Language  and  Composition,  p.  245.  One  Use  of  the  Apos- 
trophe, for  Fifth  Grade  or  Above,  p.  245.  Vocabulary  Lessons 
for  Grades  Five  and  Seven,  p.  251.     Descriptive  Writing,  Grades 


Seven  and  Eight,  p.  253.  Narration,  Seventh  Grade,  p.  255.  An 
Eighth-Grade  Newspaper,  p.  258.  One  Hundred  Spelling  "De- 
mons," p.  201. 

V.  Arithmetic  Aids, 261 

A.  Outline  of  Social  Situations  from  which  Arithmetic  Topics  De- 
veloped, p.  261. 

B.  Type  Lessons  for  Grades  Six,  Seven,  and  Eight:  Canceling  a  Dis- 
tant Debt,  p.  264;  Interest,  p.  265;  Insurance,  p.  267. 

VI.  Helps  in  Geography, 271 

Type  Lessons  for  Grades  Five  and  Six:  Latitude  and  Longitude,  p. 
271;  The  Great  Basin,  p.  276;  The  Drainage  of  Minnesota,  p.  278. 

VII.  Devices  and  Their  Place  in  Teaching, 279 

A.  Their  Relation  to  Methods  and  Principles,  p.  279. 

B.  A  Few  Staple  Devices  with  Rules  for  Their  Use,  p.  280. 

VIII.  Teaching  Children  to  Study,  (and  to  do  Seat-work)        .      .      .   283 
Steps  in   Studying,    p.    283;    Seat-Work   Materials   and   Their   Use, 

p.  285;  Valuable  Seat-Work  from  Discarded  Text-Books,  p.  287. 

IX.  Measuring  Results  In  Education, 292 

References  for  Students  of  the  Subject,  p.  292;  Available  Test  Mate- 
rial, p.  293;  How  to  Administer  Tests,  p.  294;  Penmanship  Speed 
Comparisons,  p.  295. 

X.  Discipline, 295 

Meaning  of,  p.  295;  Factors  In  Children's  Development  of  Conduct- 
Ideals,  p.  297;  Aids  to  Good  Discipline,  p.  298;  Children  Studied 
to  Be  Understood,  p.  299. 

XI.  A  Few  Important  School  Laws, 299 

XII.  A  Teacher's  Books, 300 

For  General  Reference,  p.  300;  To  Supplement  Minnesota  School 
Library  List  In  All  Lines,  p.  301;  The  First  Twenty-Five  Books  for 
a  Teacher  to  Own,  p.  302. 

WORK  PAGED  BY  GRADES. 

Grade  I.— 15,  287;  18,  295;  18;  73,  230-236;  78;    106;  127;    148;    151-155; 
156-164;  167;  177-182;  185;  192;  198;  199. 

Grade  II.— 19,  287;  22,  295;  23;  80;   82;  107;  127;    148;    151-155;    156-164; 
167;  177-182;  185;  193;  198;  199. 

Grade  III.— 24,  287;  29,  295;  29;  83,  237;  85;  110;   129;   148;   151-155;   156- 
164;  167;  177-182;  185;  193;  198;  199. 

Grade  IV.— 30,  287;  35,  295;  36;  86,  237;  88,  98;    112;    131;    148;    151-155; 
156-164;  170;  177-182;  186;  194;  198;  199. 

Grade  V.— 37,  245,  251,  287;  41,  295;  41,  261;  88,  241;  90,  98;  115;   133,  271- 
27S;  148;  151-155;  156-164;  171;  177-182;  186;  195;  199;  199. 

Grade  VI.— 42,  245,  251,  287;  48,  295;  48,  261;  90,   241;   92,   98;    118;    136, 
271-278;  148;  151-155;  156-164;  173;  177-182;  187;  195;  199;  199. 

Grade  VII.— 49,  252,  253,  255,  287;   54,  295;  54;  93;  95,  98;  120,  264-265; 
141;  148;  151-155;  156-164;  174;  177-182;  188;  196;  199;  199. 

Grade  VIII.— 55,  254,  258,  287;  62,  295;  62;  63;  95;  98;  122,  264-267;  144; 
148;  151-155;  156-164;  175;  177-182;  188;  196;  199;  199. 


A  Teacher's  Pledge 

Recognizing  that  only  the  freedom  and  uplifting 
power  of  a  cultured  mind  will  make  my  teaching  vital 
and  inspiring  instead  of  cramped  and  unillumined; 

Realizing  that  long  after  the  facts,  rules,  methods, 
and  lessons,  are  forgotten  by  my  pupils,  the  heart  rela- 
tions which  spring  from  a  cultivated  personality  will 
remain  the  real  teaching  power  for  all  the  days  to  come; 

Knowing  full  well  that  the  measure  of  the  growth 
which  shall  result  when  my  life  touches  the  pupil's 
life  will  be  the  measure  of  my  growing  manhood,  nur- 
tured by  open-mindedness,  candor,  generosity,  inter- 
est in  things  that  are  right  and  beautiful,  and  the 
charm  that  makes  a  gentleman; 

Recognizing  that  my  calling  is  of  such  a  character 
that  I  shall  have  to  make  a  special  effort,  by  plans  and 
all  forethought,  to  counteract  the  tendency  toward 
an  arrested  and  delayed  development,  so  noticeable 
in  all  men,  so  dangerous  in  all  callings,  but  so  immi- 
nent and  subtle  in  my  own; 

Recognizing  in  general  that  my  work  as  a  teacher 
is  of  the  highest  value  to  the  state  and  society  for 
their  perpetuation  and  happiness,  and  that  my  influ- 
ence, exerted  upon  the  imitative  plastic  lives  of  chil- 
dren for  their  weal  or  woe,  must  find  its  source  in  the 
culture  of  my  own  mind  and  heart;  I  enter  upon  the 
fulfillment  of  this  solemn  promise: 

I  promise  consciously  to  strive  to  measure  up  to 
the  best  of  which  I  am  able,  so  to  employ  my  time  and 
talents  that  my  horizon  shall  be  enlarged,  that  my 
character  shall  be  enriched,  and  that  I  shall  follow 
the  gleam. 

I  promise  as  a  result  of  well-planned  efforts,  to  be 
a  bigger,  broader  person,  with  more  interests,  with 
wider  sympathies,  finer  sensibilities,  and  the  capacity 
for  greater  helpfulness,  in  one  year  from  today  than 
I  am  at  this  moment. 

Should  I  fail  to  keep  this  pledge  in  full  good  faith 
and  with  reasonably  satisfactory  success,  I  then 
promise  to  quit  the  work  of  teaching,  to  get  where 
my  responsibilities  are  not  so  great,  and  thus  permit 
my  shortcomings  to  fall  upon  my  own  life  alone 
rather  than  upon  the  lives  of  boys  and  girls  whose 
potentialities  for  growth  would  be  blighted  by  my 
arrested  development. 

G.  E.  Maxwell. 


PART  I. 

COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

PURPOSE  OF  THIS  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

When  a  man  attacks  a  problem  in  an  effective  way  he  either 
deliberately  or  unconsciously  employs  certain  universal  and  well- 
known  methods  of  procedure:  (1)  He  sees  his  problem,  either  in  a 
general  way  or  in  a  specific  way;  (2)  after  recognizing  or  setting 
himself  his  problem,  he  selects  the  methods  or  means  for  solving 
it;  (3)  having  done  this,  he  sticks  to  the  problem  until  it  is  solved; 
then  he  (4)  checks  results,  or  tests  his  solution;  and  (5)  he  applies 
his  newly  acquired  knowledge  to  fresh  situations,  profiting  by  both 
successes  and  failures. 

Teaching  is  a  series  of  just  such  problems,  demanding  on  the 
teacher's  part,  (1)  a  knowledge  of  aims,  (2)  of  materials  and  meth- 
ods to  realize  the  aims,  (3)  a  personality  that  can  use  materials 
and  methods  effectively,  (4)  standards  for  measuring  results,  and 
(5)  ability  to  profit  by  successes  and  failures. 

Aims — Since  aims  of  education  are  a  direct  outgrowth  of  group 
life,  the  teacher  should,  if  he  would  understand  the  specific  aims 
of  his  community,  know  the  general  historical  and  philosophical 
development  of  all  aims. 

When  patrons,  children  now  in  school,  and  persons  who  left 
school  early,  are  questioned  on  what  they  wanted  the  school  to 
accomplish,  the  remarkable  agreement  in  aims  is  worthy  of  note. 
They  want  the  school  to  help  its  pupils  "know  more,"  "earn  a 
better  living,"  learn  "how  to  live,"  "how  to  enjoy  life,"  how  to 
"meet  difficulties"  or  "meet  emergencies,"  "get  along  in  all  kinds 
of  places,"  "be  proud  of  themselves,"  "hold  up  their  heads  any- 
where," be  "brave,"  be  "honest,"  know  "how  to  work,"  learn 
"how  to  study,"  and  so  on,  through  a  long  series  of  replies.  That 
is,  patrons  want,  as  Dr.  O'Shea  has  in  substance  said,  that  the 
pupil  should  be  able  to  adjust  himself  to  the  world  in  which  he 
lives;  that  he  should,  first,  understand  life  about  him;  second,  should 
have  habits  of  industry  and  thought  to  aid  him  in  controlling  his 
adjustments;  and,  third,  must  have  sufficient  will  power  to  succeed. 


10  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Materials — What  materials  shall  be  used  to  meet  these  aims 
are  not  so  readily  agreed  upon.  Some  want  only  "the  three  R's"; 
others  want  more  hand- work  than  anything  else;  others  demand 
what  they  call  "cultural"  subjects.  Consequently,  every  bit  of 
subject-matter  (or  other  material  of  education)  should  have  a 
strong  defense  for  its  use,  and  one  function  of  a  state  course  of 
study  is  to  show  all  who  are  interested  the  principles  upon  which 
the  selection  of  subject-matter  is  based— subject-matter,  however, 
considered  always  as  a  tool,  not  as  an  end  in  itself. 

M ethods— Though  the  persons  questioned  have  definite  ideas 
of  what  education  should  aim  to  accomplish,  and  strong  prejudices 
for  certain  materials  which  they  desire  used,  they  ordinarily  con- 
cern themselves  very  little  with  the  methods  to  be  employed  in 
making  the  materials  further  the  aim.  Therefore  it  is  that  the 
study  of  methods,  though  so  vitally  related  to  the  efficient  realiza- 
tion of  educational  aims,  becomes  the  more  exclusive  problem  of 
the  teacher. 

Measuring  Results — The  public  does  concern  itself  with  results, 
which  it  is  quite  inclined  to  criticise  adversely,  but  not  scientific- 
ally. It  therefore  behooves  the  educator  to  make  scientific  tests 
which  either  refute  or  support  the  criticisms,  and  hence  lead  either 
to  greater  loyalty  on  the  part  of  citizens  or  to  reforms  on  the  part 
of  the  school. 

Personality — Because  of  the  short  tenure  of  office  of  the  ma- 
jority of  teachers,  and  the  consequent  necessity  of  employing  so 
many  inexperienced  persons,  who,  for  the  sake  of  the  children  in 
their  charge,  must  be  made  quickly  (even  if  narrowly)  efficient,  a 
grouping  of  teachers  into  two  main  classes,  the  supervised  and  the 
supervisors,  becomes  necessary.  And  since,  to  secure,  from  young 
teachers,  practical  or  immediate  efficiency,  supervisors  must  plan 
the  materials,  indicate  the  methods  to  be  employed,  and  often 
administer  the  tests  of  results,  there  is  constant  danger  that  teach- 
ing may  become  too  formal  or  vocational.  To  counteract  this 
tendency,  a  course  of  study  and  manual  on  which  teachers  may 
daily  reflect,  should  stress  aims,  principles,  and  theories,  so  that, 
just  as  rapidly  as  possible,  individual  teachers  may  take  the  initia- 
tive in  lines  which  have  earlier  necessarily  been  prescribed,  thus 
entering  into  the  profession  versus  the  vocation  of  teaching. 

That  is,  to  be  helpful,  a  state  course  of  study  should  point  the 
way  very  plainly  for  at  least  a  short  distance  to  the  inexperienced 
teacher,  but  should  also  suggest  either  interesting  by-paths,  en- 
riching detours,  or  emergency  short-cuts,  to  teachers  of  wider  ex- 
perience,  helping   them   to  see  constant  opportunities  to  exercise 


Interrelation  of  the  Language  Arts.  11 

individuality  and  to  grow  in  efficiency.  The  actual  distribution 
of  subject-matter,  found  in  Part  I,  will  be  of  primary  interest  to 
the  novice,  whereas  the  underlying  principles  of  this  selection  and 
distribution,  together  with  discussions  of  methods  of  work  and 
means  of  measuring  results,  will  be  what  teachers  of  experience  are 
likely  to  care  for.     (Found  mainly  in  Part  II.) 


SCHOOL  SUBJECT-MATTER  AND  ITS  DISTRIBU- 
TION BY  GRADES. 

I.— ENGLISH. 

A.— INTERRELATION  OF  THE  LANGUAGE  ARTS. 

The  formation  of  a  group,  whether  it  be  primitive  or  modern, 
whether  small  or  great  in  number,  demands  at  once  some  common 
means  of  communication.  In  primitive  groups  this  was  necessary 
for  simple  self-preservation — the  securing  of  food,  the  planning  of 
the  hunt,  and  similar  things.  In  higher  civilized  life,  though  we 
need  communication  for  our  material  needs,  we  covet  it  still  more 
for  exchange  of  the  spiritual  things  of  life — ideals,  emotions,  appre- 
ciations, and  knowledge,      x 

Because  communication  always  has  been  needed,  is  sought  to- 
day, and,  so  far  as  we  have  vision  to  see  the  future,  always  will  be 
coveted,  the  defense  for  teaching  the  language  arts  in  school  is  very 
strong. 

For  direct  communication  with  one  another  we  need  gesture, 
facial  expression,  intonation,  oral  language  itself  (in  our  land,  En- 
glish), and  all  the  accompaniments  of  speech  which  refined  persons 
use.  As  we  cultivate  our  powers  of  direct  communication  we  find 
a  need  for  grammar  and  rhetoric — at  least  enough  to  make  our 
speech  clear  and  coherent,  if  not  interesting  and  persuasive. 

For  communication  with  persons  at  a  distance  from  us,  in 
either  space  or  time,  or  even  for  recording  events  that  interest  us 
or  that  we  wish  to  recall,  we  need  written  language.  So,  if  we  would 
have  our  thoughts  clear,  we  must  conquer  penmanship,  spelling, 
forms  of  punctuation  and  of  sentence  structure,  the  methods  of 
making  paragraphs,  and  of  writing  descriptions,  explanations,  ex- 
positions, and,  possibly,  arguments  or  persuasions.  This  means 
still  more  knowledge  of  vocabulary,  of  grammatical  structure,  and 
of  rhetorical  choice. 


12  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

For  knowing  what  others  wish  to  communicate  to  us  we  must 
learn  (silently)  to  read  written  speech,  whether  in  hand-writing  or 
print.  This  power  necessitates  our  having  a  working  knowledge 
(the  art,  not  the  science)  of  pronunciation,  and,  hence,  of  phonics; 
of  spelling;  of  grammatical  structure  of  sentence,  clause,  and  phrase, 
and  discrimination  in  vocabulary.  These,  plus  all  the  above-named 
elements  of  good  oral  expression,  are  needed  if  we  wish  to  commu- 
nicate, in  the  author's  words,  what  we  have  gathered — that  is, 
read  aloud  to  others. 

Oral  language  is  well  started  before  the  child  comes  to  school, 
and  so  becomes  the  basis  of  further  language  acquisition.  The 
complex  activities  attendant  upon  written  language  necessitate  its 
very  gradual  introduction;  but  the  not-very-dimcult  art  of  reading 
what  interests  him  makes  reading  the  desire  of  every  five-  or  six- 
year-old  child.  With  advancing  years  and  the  application  of  the 
reading  art  to  the  interpretation  of  literature  and  to  all  study 
work,  the  subject  ceases  to  be  a  simple  art,  and  becomes,  first,  a 
science  with  its  own  technique,  and,  later,  a  fine  art. 

To  summarize  a  discussion  transferred  to  Part  II: 

I.  The  child  needs  to  understand  others,  hence,  listens — 

A.  Involuntarily.     B.  Voluntarily. 

II.  The  child  wants  others  to  understand  him,  hence,  communicates — 

A.  By  signs  and  sounds.     B.  By  speech. 

III.  The  child  revels  in  speech  for  its  own  sake,  not  to  communicate;  hence  he 

talks  merely  to  enjoy  sounds.     (The  period  of  greatest  vocabulary  acqui- 
sition.) 

IV.  The  child  wants  to  see  what  others  find  in  books,  hence,  learns  to  read. 

V.  The  child  wants  to  put  his  ideas  and  communications  into  permanent  form, 

hence,  learns  to  write. 
Constant  interrelation  of  listening,  talking,  reading,  thinking,  interpreting, 
and  writing,  is  to  be  preferred  to  any  separate  development  of  the  different  lan- 
guage phases.     Temporarily  one  may  receive  emphasis,  but  should  not  far  out- 
run the  others,  nor  for  any  period  ot  time. 

(See  pp.  228-230  for  the  elaboration  of  this  brief  outline.) 

B.— LANGUAGE. 

Here  the  three  phases,  Listening,  Talking,  and  Writing,  will  be 
emphasized,  and  will  appear  in  every  grade;  Grammar  will  be  added 
in  eighth  grade  only. 

Listening,  at  first  involuntary,  becomes  voluntary  as  the  power 
of  attention  is  trained.  From  giving  voluntary  attention  for  very 
short  periods  in  the  first  grade,  pupils  grow  in  power  to  attend  for 
longer  and  longer  periods.  Teachers  should  make  sure  that  chil- 
dren are  gaining  in  ability  to  attend,  for  this  power  is  the  basis  of 
will,  and  a  controlled  will  is  the  foundation  of  character  (highest 


Language. — Talking.  13 

self-realization).  If  pupils  cannot  attend  for  long  periods,  it  is 
decidedly  better  to  change  the  work,  having  concentrated  atten- 
tion for  five  minutes,  rather  than  to  encourage  dawdling  and  inef- 
ficiency by  having  desultory  attention  for  a  half  hour.  Pupils  should 
be  tested  on  their  attention  by  questions  on  the  story  or  the  reci- 
tation; for  example,  when  one  child  has  finished  a  recitation,  the 
teacher  may  ask:  How  many  points  did  he  make?  What  were 
they?  What  was  one?  or,  Do  you  agree  with  what  he  said?  (Yes.) 
What  did  he  say?  or,  What  was  his  second  statement?  These  tests 
should  be  continued  until  pupils  feel  a  need  of  attending  carefully 
to  what  is  done.  (All  this  is  direct  training  for  adulthood.  Indi- 
viduals must  get  the  correct  statements  made  by  friends  and  by 
public  speakers,  or  truth  cannot  prevail.) 

About  the  same  means  will  be  used  to  train  the  listening  ability 
throughout  the  grades,  the  differences  being  in  the  amount  of  at- 
tention and  the  specific  materials  used  for  the  center  of  attention. 
These  are,  in  general,  the  speech  of  the  home;  the  words  and  ac- 
companying intonations  gathered  with  whatever  experiences  are 
being  met,  both  inside  and  outside  of  school;  the  teacher's  direc- 
tions about  the  work  of  the  room  and  about  play  at  intermissions; 
conversation  and  recitations  of  companions;  stories  or  poems  read 
and  told  by  the  teacher  or  by  visitors.  The  teacher  of  every  grade 
must  take  pains  to  use  good  English,  to  articulate  clearly,  pro- 
nounce correctly,  and  give  clear-cut  directions.  He  must  learn  to 
select  and  to  tell  stories  well,  and  to  read  interpretatively  to  the 
children,  by  these  means  increasing  the  pupils'  power  to  attend,  to 
recognize  thoughts,  and  to  gather  vocabulary.  He  must  give  to 
that  vocabulary  clear  and  broad  meanings  by  occasional  explana- 
tions and  illustrations  of  the  thought,  and  by  free  and  natural  use 
of  suitable  facial  expression  and  gesture  as  he  reads  or  talks.  The 
values  to  be  gained  from  the  verbatim  reciting  of  good  poetry  suited 
to  the  grade  being  taught  are  well  known  to  all;  the  teacher  must 
therefore  have  at  his  tongue's  end  many  a  poem  to  be  so  used  in 
an  odd  minute  or  two.  (See  pp.  91-93,  Minnesota  School  Library 
List,  1915-16,  for  reference-books.) 

Talking. — Adults,  as  well  as  children,  talk  so  much  more  than 
they  write,  and  their  culture  or  lack  of  it  is  so  often  judged  by  the 
English  they  speak,  that  the  ability  to  speak  well  becomes  a  prime 
aim  of  every  elementary-school  curriculum.  To  speak  well  one 
must  have  something  to  say  and  then  say  it  so  others  are  glad  to 
listen;  that  is,  (1)  fluently,  with  good  vocabulary,  easily  commanded; 
(2)  coherently,  well  organized,  so  as  to  be  followed  if  attention  is 
given;  (3)  accurately,  using  correct  vocabulary,  acceptable  grammar, 


14  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

and  even  choice  diction.  If,  in  addition  to  these  minimum  essen- 
tials of  good  talking,  the  speaker  possesses  animation,  interest  in 
his  topic,  originality  in  expression,  a  sense  of  humor  where  neces- 
sary, and  convincingness,  we  are  not  only  glad  to  listen,  but  we 
covet  the  privilege,  seeking  to  hear  him  whenever  possible. 

Freedom,  ease,  or  fluency,  the  essential  which  primary  teachers 
can  cultivate,  must  not  be  lost  with  advancing  years,  though  inter- 
mediate-grade teachers  work  for  coherency,  and  grammar-grade 
teachers  add  accuracy  and  polish  to  the  list. 

Children  differ  widely,  from  the  most  voluble  child,  who  would 
usurp  all  the  time,  to  the  most  passive  child,  who  never  volunteers, 
and  who,  when  directed  to  speak,  can  scarcely  be  heard.  The 
teacher's  resourcefulness  becomes  exercised  to  the  limit  in  his  at- 
tempt to  curb  the  one  and  urge  forward  the  other  without  making 
either  one  self-conscious.  The  direction,  "Tell  me  one  thing  (later, 
two,  three,  etc.,  things)  that  you  did  on  Saturday,"-  keeps  the  too- 
talkative  child  within  bounds  and  yet  does  not  demand  too  much 
of  the  most  timid  one.  "Tell  me  the  most  interesting  thing  that 
you  saw  on  our  trip,  or  found  out  yesterday,"  directs  the  impulsive 
child  towards  organization  of  ideas  and  gives  him  food  for  thought 
while  the  slower  child  is  getting  out  a  single  sentence  about  any- 
thing which  he  saw. 

Vocabulary  is  especially  helped  by  pupils'  reproducing  stories 
heard,  with  the  idea  of  telling  the  stories  so  that  others  are  glad  to 
listen.  Commendations  upon  clearness  of  tone,  looking  at  the 
audience,  choice  of  words,  making  the  pictures  clear,  etc.,  when- 
ever such  commendation  is  deserved,  will  soon  set  standards  for 
the  pupils  as  to  what  makes  a  talk  good.  Pupils  may  then  help 
to  find  the  good  points  in  each  recitation  that  is  made,  until,  in 
upper  grades,  they  have  gained  a  standard  which  they  can  use  for 
self  criticism  and  improvement.  In  no  grade  should  the  recognized 
standards  of  "good  work"  be  beyond  the  attainment  of  the  pupils, 
but  should  always  be  just  enough  above  the  average  of  the  class 
to  act  as  a  spur  to  self-improvement. 

Children  in  every  grade  will  need  drill  in  the  repetition  of  cor- 
rect forms,  and  for  this  purpose  nothing  more  valuable  has  been 
found  than  the  language  games  now  so  well  known  and  so  easily 
varied  by  every  resourceful  teacher  to  meet  his  school's  needs. 
(See  p.  302  for  references.)  Every  teacher  should  make  a  complete 
list  of  the  English  errors  spoken  or  written  by  pupils  of  his  grade, 
and  then  steadily  work  to  eradicate  them  in  the  order  of  their 
seriousness. 


Language. — Writing. — Grade  I. — Listening.  15 

Above  all  else,  the  teacher  must  watch  that  standards  set  and 
corrections  made  do  not  produce  self-consciousness  and  fear  of 
self-expression  on  the  part  of  pupils. 

Recent  studies  made  of  children's  English  errors  prove  that 
the  different  kinds  of  errors  are  not  so  numerous  as  was  once  sup- 
posed, and  that  persistent  effort  throughout  the  grades  can  eradi- 
cate virtually  all  of  the  gross  errors  in  speech.* 

Writing. — Writing  one's  thoughts,  compared  to  speaking  them, 
has  a  relatively  small  place  in  the  lives  of  most  individuals;  yet 
written  language  is  needed  often  enough  to  warrant  its  receiving 
considerable  attention  in  school.  Dr.  Rice's  investigations  led 
him  to  conclude  that  "almost  every  pupil  is  capable  of  acquiring 
the  art  of  writing  good  English,  and  that  the  normal  child  is  not 
to  blame  if  he  has  not  acquired  the  power  of  expressing  his  thoughts 
in  creditable  English"!  by  the  end  of  the  eighth  grade. 

In  written  English,  as  in  oral,  tests  have  been  made  in  many 
sections  of  the  United  States.  The  results  show  that  concentrated 
effort  on  a  comparatively  few  points  in  sentence  and  paragraph 
structure,  and  in  the  mechanics  of  penmanship,  spelling,  and  punc- 
tuation, should  produce  exactly  the  result  Dr.  Rice  concludes  to 
be  possible. 

Each  teacher  should  study  with  great  care  the  work  of  all  the 
grades  both  above  and  below  his  own,  know  what  to  expect,  build 
upon  that  knowledge,  work  for  cumulative  effect,  and  steadily 
raise  the  standard  in  both  what  is  selected  to  be  told  (orally  or  in 
writing)  and  the  manner  of  expressing  that  thought. 

A  certain  amount  of  repetition  seems  necessary  for  emphasis; 
but,  wherever  possible,  it  is  taken  for  granted  that  teachers  will 
read  what  was  suggested  in  the  grades  preceding  theirs. 

Grade  I. 

Listening  to  speech  of  companions  and  teacher,  and  especially 
to  stories  and  poems.  Only  the  best  literature  should  be  used, 
since  the  time  in  school  is  too  short  to  be  spent  upon  stories  or  anec- 
dotes that  are  merely  "not  bad."  Every  minute  is  necessary  for 
the  positively  excellent  literature  which  will  be  needed  by  pupils 
as  they  advance  in  the  grades  and  reach  adulthood.  Literature  of 
the  primary  grades  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  appreciation  of 
literature  in  high  school  and  college,  and  he  who  hasn't  the  back- 
ground of  Mother  Goose  Rhymes,  fairy  tales,  myths,  and  legends, 
to  help  him   understand  references  and  allusions   made  in  adult 

*  See  W.  W.  Charters's  study,  in  University  of  Missouri  Bulletin,  Vol.  16,  No.  2. 
t  Scientific  Management  in  Education,  p.  1S5. 


16  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

literature,  often  misses  or  at  any  rate  is  delayed  in  his  apprecia- 
tion of  the  real  point.  Besides  this  background  for  the  apprecia- 
tion of  other  literature,  primary  literature  gives  pupils  gathered 
from  homes  of  widely  differing  standards,  a  common  basis  for  con- 
versation about  something  worth  while.  Unlike  a  personal  inci- 
dent, a  bit  of  good  literature  can  be  told  by  every  member  of  a 
school  and  yet  not  pall;  the  vocabulary  is  choice,  and  the  mental 
pictures  aroused  are  stimulating  to  imagination  and  to  thought; 
the  organization  is  good  and  the  development  orderly;  so  that, 
withal,  the  children  get  from  good  literature  ideal  models  for  imi- 
tation. 

Children  of  this  age  are  especially  fond  of  rhythm,  and  so  like 
simple  rhythmic  tales,  cumulative  tales  (which  are  rhythmic  in 
their  repetitions),  and  rhymes.  They  also  love  fairy  tales,  and 
stories  about  themselves  and  their  companions.  (See  p.  x,  pp. 
2-7,  pp!  91-93,  etc.,  of  the  Minnesota  School  Library  List,  1915-16, 
for  suggestions  for  real  literature.)  The  teacher  can  satisfy  chil- 
dren's love  of  stories  about  themselves  through  the  telling  of  pre- 
tended incidents,  such  as  a  trip  to  the  moon,  or  by  relating  "play" 
dreams  which  the  children  have  when  they  put  heads  on  desks 
and  pretend  to  sleep  a  few  seconds.  Of  course  the  teacher  has  to 
tell  the  first  "dream"  and  at  intervals  thereafter  must  tell  parts  of 
her  "dreams,"  to  prevent  children  from  getting  into  a  rut.  "Dreams" 
are  especially  good  because  they  may  be  as  fantastic  as  one  pleases 
and  still  be  no  more  strange  than  real  dreams  often  are.  As  a 
dream,  this  story,  told  by  Edward  L.,  a  first-grade  child,  isn't  so 
funny  as  it  sounds. 

"I  dreamed  that  James  and  I  went  out  to  the  woods.  There  we  saw  a  couple 
of  Indians.  We  lifted  our  air  rifles  and  fired.  James  shot  two  and  I  shot  three 
of  them." 

Things  that  start  out  large  suddenly  grow  small,  and  without 
even  any  "abracadabra,"  such  as  "The  Little  Lame  Prince"  had 
to  use,  one  is  transported  miles  in  a  second  of  time.  The  teacher 
may  well  get  suggestions  for  her  "dreams"  from  the  above-named 
book,  as  well  as  from  "Alice's  Adventures  in  Wonderland,"  "Through 
the  Looking  Glass,"  and  "Pinocchio,"  though  these  books  mustn't 
be  spoiled  for  later  reading. 

The  stories  prepared  for  telling  should  either  be  brief,  with  a 
main  thought  kept  prominent,  or  should  be  composed,  as  are  cumu- 
lative and  fairy  tales,  of  distinct  thoughts  so  related  as  to  be  readily 
held  in  mind.  Children  can  then  be  held,  in  their  reproductions, 
to  saying  something  worth  while — not  just  chattering;  to  gaining 
in  the  use  of  complete  sentences;  and  to  making  clear  pictures. 


Language. — Grade  I. — Talking.  17 

Talking. — In  the  first  grade,  freedom  or  spontaneity  in  expres- 
sion should  be  the  main  thing  sought.  This  is  produced  by  hav- 
ing pupils  talk  about  the  things  of  most  vital  interest  or  best 
known  to  them;  namely,  their  own  experiences  at  home,  in  going  to 
and  from  school,  in  school,  or  on  the  play-ground;  their  experi- 
ences in  helping  mother,  or  taking  a  walk  or  ride  with  father;  what 
happens  to  their  pets;  what  they  do  with  their  toys;  eventful  days 
such  as  birthdays,  Thanksgiving,  and  Christmas;  school  work  in 
which  all  are  interested,  nature  observations,  games,  school  excur- 
sions, pictures  studied,  and  stories  heard  or  learned  in  the  reading- 
class;  things  imagined  or  desired  as  experiences;  memorized  poems. 

Here,  as  in  upper  grades,  the  speaker  must  have  an  appreciative 
audience,  and  the  teacher  must  each  time  give  the  listening  pupils 
a  motive  for  attending,  or  both  speaker  and  audience  lose  the 
values  of  the  language  exercise.  A  few  motives  are  suggested  to 
show  beginning  teachers  for  what  the  children  should  be  looking; 
resourceful  teachers  will  very  soon  find  other  and  better  sugges- 
tions. In  all  cases  the  suggestions  should  be  helpful  to  the  speaker, 
not  the  sort  to  cause  fear  or  self-consciousness. 

Show  Mary  that  you  want  to  hear  her  part  of  the  story;  that  you  like  this 
story;  that  you  are  glad  to  hear  it  again;  while  you  listen  to  John,  see  whether 
he  makes  the  picture  clear  to  you;  listen  to  see  whether  you  hear  every  word; 
be  ready  to  go  on  with  the  story,  not  repeating  a  thing  Jane  said;  be  able  to  tell 
me  how  many  and  what  things  happened  in  the  part  Lucy  tells;  be  ready  to 
help  Susie  if  she  needs  it;  when  Sam  is  through  let  us  tell  him  whether  he  did 
better  than  last  time;  think  of  all  the  things  you  like  about  the  way  Bert  tells 
his  story.  If  you  sit  up  and  listen  well,  you  will  be  helping  Frank  to  keep  a 
good  position;  when  Guy  finishes,  you  may  draw  (or  cut)  the  picture  he  makes, 
and  the  better  you  listen  the  more  you'll  get  for  your  picture. 

If  a  pupil  hesitates  for  a  word,  the  teacher  or  the  listeners  should 
unobtrusively  supply  it.  In  the  same  inconspicuous  way,  the 
teacher  must  gently  but  persistently  substitute  correct  forms  for 
all  wrong  ones.  The  important  thing  is  to  secure  freedom,  which 
too  emphatic  attention  to  errors  will  check.  The  teacher  will,  of 
course,  note  all  errors,  and  later  plan  games  to  give  special  drills 
upon  those  most  needed.  Some  of  the  commonest  errors  whose 
correction  should  be  begun  in  first  grade  are:  Seen  for  saw,  come  for 
came,  done  for  did,  run  for  ran,  ain't  for  isn't,  don't  for  doesn't.     My 

papa  he  said ,  I  got-a  go  home ,  Once  they  wuz  a  little  boy , 

and  the  over-use  of  the  conjunction  and.  From  the  first,  pupils 
must  be  urged  to  use  large  movements  whenever  such  prove  help- 
ful in  their  talking.  They  may  show  relationships  by  drawings  at 
the  blackboard;  by  asking  some  companions  to  step  forward  and 
stand  in  desired  positions;  by  placing  waste-baskets,  pointers,  or 


18  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

erasers,  wherever  necessary;  or  by  indicating  objects  in  the  room 
that  might  illustrate  the  meaning.  This  will  help  to  prove  to  the 
teacher  that  the  child's  new  vocabulary  means  something  to  him, 
and  will  help  other  children  to  secure  meanings  of  words  used. 
Pupils  should  be  urged  to  use  their  own  words  while  keeping  the 
true  thought  of  a  dialogue,  and  especially  to  supply  indicated  con- 
versation in  a  dramatization,  even  when  the  story  does  not  tell 
just  what  was  said. 

A  child  inclined  to  monotony  must  be  urged  to  imitate  the  voice 
and  manner  of  the  person  characterized.  "Was  that  just  the  way 
mother  spoke  to  the  baby?"  "Do  it  just  as  mother  did."  "Make 
me  feel  how  mother  loved  the  baby  and  what  she  said  to  quiet 
her."  Or,  if  relating  how  father  scared  away  an  ugly  dog  that 
came  towards  the  baby,  the  child  must  be  stimulated  to  "move 
and  speak  and  use  the  same  tone  as  father  did."  Gradually,  the 
monotone  will  show  voice  variation. 

Writing. — No  original  composition  work  in  writing  is  demanded, 
but  much  of  the  seat-work  is  direct  preparation  for  writing  in 
second  grade.  For  example,  discrimination  of  word  forms;  match- 
ing words  with  words  accompanying  pictures;  making  sentences 
like  patterns  from  cards  containing  phrases,  words,  and  (later  in 
the  year)  letters;  and  laying  corn  or  pegs  on  children's  written 
names,  or  tracing  the  same  with  colored  crayons.  Near  the  end 
of  the  year,  copying  words,  phrases,  and  sentences,  at  the  blackboard 
from  blackboard  copies,  and  at  the  seats  from  copies  on  cards,  may  be 
inaugurated;  but  such  copying  must  not  teach  bad  habits  of  finger 
movement  or  pencil  holding,  and  so  must  be  supervised  and  given 
in  small  quantity. 

Penmanship. — Should  some  special  method  of  penmanship  be 
employed  throughout  the  school  system,  that  will,  of  course,  be 
followed.  If  none  is  used,  the  teacher  will  find  herself  in  line  with 
modern  thought  if  she  has  blackboard  practice,  to  secure  full-arm 
movement,  giving  pupils,  by  the  end  of  the  year,  control  over  the 
up-and-down  movement  and  the  two  ovals.  They  should  also  ac- 
quire the  ability  to  make  legibly  but  still  with  free-arm  movement 
nil  the  commonly  used  letters  of  the  alphabet.  Since  pupils  will 
not  need  all  the  letters  often  enough  to  fix  their  forms  in  memory, 
a  complete  alphabet  of  both  capital  and  lower-case  letters  should 
be  either  on  the  blackboard  or  on  a  large  chart  placed  within  easy 
sight  of  all  pupils. 

Spelling. — Spelling  as  a  separate  subject  will  not  appear  on  the 
program,  but  by  the  end  of  the  year  children  will  be  able  to  write  as 
wholes  many  words  learned  through  reading  and  related  seat-work. 


Language. — Grade  II. — Listening  and  Talking.  19 

What  may  reasonably  be  expected  by  the  end  of  the  first  year. — 
That  the  child  have  something  to  say;  that  he  stand  in  good  pos- 
ture and  speak  in  clear,  pleasing  tones  while  he  talks;  that  he 
enunciate  distinctly  and  pronounce  correctly;  that  he  indicate  his 
completed  thoughts  by  proper  inflection,  avoiding  the  excessive 
use  of  "and";  that  he  show  voice  variation  for  at  least  the  larger 
differences  in  emotion;  that  in  seat- work  the  child  indicate  that  he 
recognizes  sentences  by  the  proper  placing  of  capitals  and  period; 
that  he  use  a  capital  for  the  pronoun  /  and  for  proper  names  of 
persons;  that  he  write  his  own  name  and  address,  with  proper 
spelling  and  punctuation;  that,  unless  a  special  penmanship  system 
defers  all  writing,  he  write  as  wholes  between  fifty  and  one  hun- 
dred words  common  to  his  various  lessons,  the  list  to  include  such 
words  as  the,  and,  in,  on,  was,  and  is. 

Grade  II. 

(See  Grade  I,  as  all  possible  repetition  is  avoided.) 

Listening. — Second-grade  pupils  should  be  made  more  conscious 
of  their  listening  and  shown  the  benefit  it  will  be  to  them  to  keep 
ears  (and  eyes)  open  for  things  to  tell  others  or  for  verifying  facts 
already  told.  They  should  begin  to  show  power  in  giving  volun- 
tary attention  whenever  necessary,  and  to  keep  their  attention 
upon  one  thing  for  a  longer  time  than  before.  Individuals  will  of 
course  differ,  and  no  standard  can  be  set  for  all.  In  one  way, 
listening  attentively  can  be  cultivated  by  having  pupils  feel  and 
reproduce  rhythms  in  music. 

Having  learned  how  to  listen  attentively,  the  pupils  may  now 
receive  several  consecutive  directions  about  their  work  or  play  with 
the  expectation  that  all  can  be  executed.  They  can  hear  told  a 
longer  story,  recalling  the  early  parts  even  though  absorbed  in  the 
climax.  As  said  under  Grade  I,  only  the  best  literature  should  be 
used  for  story  telling.  Besides  the  literature  named  in  first  grade, 
pupils  respond  happily  to  nature,  Greek,  and  Norse  myths,  and  to 
poems  of  childhood.     (Use  the  Minnesota  Library  List  constantly.) 

Talking. — Effort  should  be  made:  to  keep  alive  all  the  freedom 
gained  in  first  grade;  to  enrich  vocabulary  and  secure  such  easy 
command  of  the  new  words  and  phrases  as  to  produce  pleasing  flu- 
ency; to  hold  pupuls  to  a  point  more  consistently;  and  to  arouse 
the  beginning  of  consciousness  of  digressions.  Incidents  should 
be  told  with  more  conscious  orderliness,  such,  for  example,  as  a 
plainly  marked  beginning  or  preface  (if  there  is  one  to  the  incident), 
followed  by  such  emphasis  upon  the  principal  feature  of  the  event 
as  to  make  the  incident  clear  to  all. 


20  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

The  demand  for  good  posture,  pleasing  voice,  varied  intonation, 
good  articulation,  and  evidence  of  knowing  thought  completeness, 
must  in  no  wise  be  remitted. 

Pupils  should  gradually  acquire  standards  for  judging  whether 
their  own  and  others'  work  is  good  or  not.  Mere  fault-finding  is 
easy,  and  must  not  be  indulged  in;  but  second-grade  pupils  need 
not  be  made  self-conscious  by  adverse  criticism,  judicious  in  amount 
and  sympathetically  administered.  Given  an  attentive  and  sym- 
pathetic audience,  and  having  something  to  tell,  a  normal  child 
wants  to  do  his  best,  and  therefore  willingly  accepts  all  helpful 
criticism,  particularly  when  he  may  "try  again,"  putting  his  cor- 
rection into  practice. 

The  same  sorts  of  English  errors  as  those  noted  in  first  grade 
will  still  be  found  in  the  second.  While  keeping  up  practice  upon 
the  correct  use  of  did,  saw,  came,  and  ran,  the  teacher  may  add  the 
past  tenses  of  other  verbs  needed  by  her  pupils,  fixing  the  correct 
form  through  the  playing  of  games  which  she  can  easily  devise,  or 
adapt  from  some  suggested  in  the  references  (p.  302).  Children 
inclined  to  talk  monotonously  are  helped  to  portray  not  only  very 
different  emotions  (such  as  love  and  annoyance — see  p.  18),  but 
also  a  few  shades  of  even  one  emotion,  as,  for  example,  the  in- 
creasing surprise  of  the  Three  Bears  on  finding  fresh  evidences  of 
the  invasion  of  their  home.  (See  note,  p.  82,  for  suggestions  for 
inflection  drills;  also  p.  85.) 

Writing. — Some  written  composition  is,  of  course,  possible  in 
this  year.  It  must,  however,  be  based  upon  oral  work.  The  child 
who  has  been  helped  to  feel  the  end  of  a  thought  in  his  oral  compo- 
sition, and  to  express  that  completeness  by  inflection,  will  natur- 
ally tend  to  write  his  thoughts  in  sentences. 

"Children  do  not  intuitively  possess  habits  of  correct  written 
expression.  These  must  be  built  up  from  the  day  that  written 
language  is  begun  in  the  second  grade.  The  important  thing,  and 
the  difficult  thing,  is  to  give  sufficient  drill  on  the  mechanics  of 
written  composition,  without  killing  the  child's  spontaneity  and 
his  freedom  of  expression.  Drill  on  the  mechanics  of  written  com- 
position there  must  be,  from  the  very  start.  At  the  same  time, 
the  teacher  must  be  extremely  cautious  not  to  let  her  insistence 
upon  correct  form  kill  the  child's  desire  for  self-expression.  Form 
must  be  taught,  and  in  the  process  content  must  not  be  sacrificed. 
This  is  a  task  that  calls  for  all  the  wisdom  and  all  the  ingenuity  of 
the  teacher.     It  is  the  real  test  of  the  good  teacher  of  composition." 

The  test  of  whether  the  written  work  is  good  should  be  an  oral 
one — the  child  who  wrote  the  story,  reading  it  to  the  others,  who, 


Language. — Grade  II. — Dictation  Exercise.  21 

as  sympathetically  helpful  listeners,  look  for:  What  they  like,  what 
is  clearest,  what  they  want  to  know  more  about,  etc.  The  teacher, 
who  has  looked  over  the  composition,  proposes  each  time  a  motive 
to  the  audience  that  will  also  help  the  writer  who  reads  his  "theme." 
As  said  before,  a  few  adverse  criticisms  will  do  no  harm — such  as, 
"He  used  too  many  ands";  "I  think  it  would  be  better  if  he  left 

out ";  "I  can't  tell  what  he  means  by ";  but  mere  flaw 

picking  must  be  guarded  against. 

*  "The  dictation  exercise,  if  employed  in  moderation  and  with  a 
clear  understanding  of  its  use,  is  valuable  in  helping  to  fix  habits 
of  written  technicalities — spelling,  capitals,  punctuation,  and  things 
of  that  sort.  It  performs  the  same  office  as  abstract  work  in  arith- 
metic. In  the  dictation  exercise  we  isolate  the  forms  of  language 
and  focus  attention  entirely  upon  them.  In  writing  compositions 
the  centre  of  attention  is  occupied  by  the  content  (the  ideas  that 
are  coming  to  the  surface  for  expression),  while  the  technique  (the 
writing,  spelling,  punctuation,  etc.)  is,  or  should  be,  removed  to 
the  margin  of  consciousness.  In  the  dictation  exercise  these  rela- 
tive positions  are  reversed.  The  content  comes  to  the  pupil  ready- 
made;  he  has  to  think  only  of  the  form.  In  addition  to  its  value 
in  teaching  and  testing  technicalities,  the  dictation  exercise,  if 
rightly  managed,  builds  up,  also,  the  power  of  sustained  attention 
and  concentration.  Its  never-failing  effect  of  restoring  quiet  in  a 
restless  class  is  an  everyday  evidence  of  its  power  to  do  this.  Its 
value,  in  developing  the  power  of  concentration,  however,  depends 
very  largely  upon  the  way  the  teacher  handles  the  exercise.  The 
dictation  may  be  too  long;  it  may  be  uninteresting  to  the  pupils; 
it  may  be  dictated  poorly— indistinctly,  too  fast,  too  slowly,  or 
with  repetitions.  Dictation  is  an  exercise  that  requires  as  much 
care  in  preparation  and  skill  in  execution  as  any  other  kind  of 
written  composition.  It  is  utterly  useless  in  the  hands  of  a  teacher, 
who,  because  she  has  no  other  work  prepared,  decides  to  give  pupils 
a  little  dictation.  In  order  to  prevent  any  false  notion  as  to  the 
proper  place  of  dictation  work,  teachers  should  bear  in  mind  that 
it  is  an  exercise  which  is  almost  wholly  mechanical,  and  that  no 
amount  of  dictation  alone  will  make  good  writers.  It  is  concerned 
with  mechanical  correctness  alone.  It  is  not  of  much  value  as  a 
teaching  exercise.  Its  chief  value  is  in  testing,  not  in  teaching. 
It  is  not  even  a  safe  test  of  the  knowledge  of  language  forms.  The 
proof  of  a  pupil's  mastery  of  the  mechanics  is  not  a  correctly  writ- 
ten dictation  lesson,  but  his  habitual  observance  of  these  matters 


*  This  and  many  other  quotations  are  taken  from  "Speaking  and  Writing  English,"  by  B.  M. 
Sheridan. 


22  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

in  his  daily  writing.  The  pupil  who  begins  all  the  sentences  of  a 
dictation  paragraph  with  capitals  and  ends  them  with  periods, 
may  in  his  free  writing  display  a  gross  lack  of  'the  sentence  feel- 
ing.' The  cadence  of  the  teacher's  voice,  and  the  natural  pause 
which  follows  the  close  of  a  dictated  sentence,  give  him  the  cue  as  to 
when  a  period  is  required  and  where  a  capital  must  be  employed. 
The  same  is  true  in  a  lesser  degree  in  respect  to  the  other  points  of 
technique.  Teachers,  therefore,  will  make  a  mistake  if  they  think 
they  can  teach  correctness  by  much  use  of  the  dictation  exercise. 
It  is  a  good  thing,  if  rightly  used.  But  it  must  be  used  with  mod- 
eration and  with  the  full  knowledge  that  its  chief  value  is  to  test 
the  result  of  the  teaching  of  the  mechanics." 

"Copying  is  useful,  as  an  occasional  exercise,  to  train  pupils  in 
careful  observation  and  exact  expression.  These  are  qualities  suf- 
ficiently rare  in  grown-up  people  to  suggest  the  need  of  some  or- 
ganized effort  on  the  part  of  the  school  to  develop  in  children  the 
power  to  see  things  straight  and  to  report  them  straight.  It  is  the 
experience  of  the  Civil  Service  examiners  that  more  people  fail  in 
the  copying  test  than  in  any  other.  The  standard  of  copying  in 
all  grades  is  exactness  itself,  though  the  matter  presented  in  the 
lower  grades  should,  of  course,  be  much  shorter  and  simpler  than 
that  which  is  given  to  older  pupils  to  copy.  The  mere  act  of  copy- 
ing from  time  to  time  will  not  lead  anywhere.  Children  must  be 
taught  right  habits  of  copying.  In  the  second  grade,  for  example, 
the  pupil  should  be  taught  to  look  at  the  whole  word  and  then 
write  the  whole  word,  not  to  copy  a  letter  or  two,  then  look  at  the 
word  again,  and  copy  two  or  three  more  letters.  Even  in  the 
lower  grades,  the  smallest  unit  should  be  the  word.  As  soon  after 
as  possible,  children  should  learn  to  look  at  the  whole  sentence,  and 
instead  of  copying  it  word  for  word,  looking  back  each  time  to  the 
printed  page,  they  should  copy  a  whole  phrase  at  a  time."*  (See 
pp.  287-292  for  other  sorts  of  seat-work  possible  to  use  here.) 

Penmanship. — Regular  daily  practice  periods  should  increase 
the  child's  control  of  movement.  If  no  writing  system  is  named 
for  the  school,  the  teacher  may  select  any  one  of  several  excellent 
systems  and  follow  the  usual  second-grade  plan.  The  child  should 
seldom  need  to  look  at  the  teacher's  copy  to  see  how  a  letter  is 
made,  yet  should  not  be  discouraged  from  doing  so.  There  is  no 
lack  of  motive  for  legible  penmanship;  indeed,  the  teacher  must 
watch  that  movement  isn't  sacrificed  by  the  child's  thinking  too 
much  of  form.     Neatness  may  well  be  commended,  but  not  good 

*  Sheridan. 


Language. — Grade  II. — Spelling.  23 

form  that  has  been  gained  by  finger  movement.    The  rate  should 
be  about  20  to  30  letters  a  minute. 

To  write  so  that  mother  can  read  the  story;  to  make  it  good  enough  to  be 
saved  for  parents'  day;  to  be  sure  Santa  Claus  can  make  out  what  is  wanted; 
to  keep  a  record  of  plant  growth,  or  of  the  sunny  days  in  one  month;  to  write  a 
note  to  the  teacher  when  she  hasn't  time  to  hear  all  that  the  child  would  like  to 
tell  her;  to  keep  a  record  of  one's  successes  in  some  competitive  game;  are  a  few 
motives  worth  using. 

Spelling. — The  Investigation  on  Spelling  made  by  the  Univer- 
sity of  South  Dakota  contains,  among  others,  the  following  con- 
clusions: 

"The  most  useful  words  in  our  language,  indeed  in  any  language,  are  the  words 
early  learned  by  children;  hence  the  spelling  vocabularies  of  the  lower  grades 
should  receive  special  attention;  and  this  means  that  there  should  be  fewer  words 
in  the  spelling  assignment  and  more  care  in  fixing  their  meaning  and  use. 

"Since  no  word  is  immune  to  misspelling,  and  each  word  has  to  be  mastered, 
our  most  important  problem  in  handling  spelling  material  is  the  problem  of  plac- 
ing in  the  hands  of  our  students  the  list  of  words  useful  in  their  writing  at  the 
given  time,  and  making  sure  that  these  words  are  mastered.  These  lists  can 
never  be  'desk  made.' 

"Since  grade  students  commonly  use  from  500  to  2,500  words  in  writing,  yet 
on  the  average  misspell  but  about  fifty  words,  not  one  child  out  of  a  thousand 
misspelling  as  many  as  one  hundred  words,  our  spelling  problem  is  not  so  gigantic 
as  it  is  commonly  believed  to  be,  for  the  reason  that  a  handful  of  words  misspelled 
over  and  over  by  each  student  has  misled  us  in  our  judgment. 

"The  words  which  give  most  trouble  in  spelling  are  found,  almost  without 
exception,  in  the  writing  vocabularies  of  the  lower  grades;  and  since  these  trouble- 
some but  useful  words  are  not  pointed  out  and  effectively  dealt  with  in  these 
early  grades,  students  go  on  misspelling,  year  by  year,  words  that  should  be 
mastered  in  the  early  school  years." 

Second-grade  teachers  should  list  the  words  needed  by  their 
pupils  in  written  work  and  see  that  these  words  are  thoroughly 
taught.  They  should  remember  that  the  writing  vocabulary  is 
considerably  behind  the  individual's  reading  vocabulary,  so  it  is 
probable  that  the  words  found  in  a  good  primer  or  first  reader  will 
suit  the  majority  of  the  class.  The  following  plans  have  been 
successfully  tried  to  prevent  children's  writing  words  incorrectly, 
thus  fixing  wrong  forms: 

1.  Encouraging  children  to  use  their  text-books  as  sources  for  the  correct 
spelling  of  words  they  wish  to  use. 

2.  Encouraging  children  to  write  just  the  known  letters  of  a  word  and  draw- 
ing a  line  for  the  unknown  part.  The  teacher  can  usually  tell  what  word  was 
desired  by  the  context  and  the  initial  letter;  she  supplies  the  full  spelling  in  col- 
ored pencil  before  returning  the  paper.  The  child  then  copies,  into  what  he  calls 
his  "dictionary,"  (a  set  of  26  blank  leaves,  on  each  of  which  is  a  letter  of  the 
alphabet,  the  whole  tied  into  an  attractive  paper  cover,)  on  the  proper  alphabet 
pages,  the  words  he  didn't  know.  The  next  time  he  wishes  those  words  he  goes 
to  his  "dictionary." 


24  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

3.  Preparing  hectographed  lists  of  words  usually  wanted  and  letting  pupils 
learn  how  to  find  the  desired  word  by  sounding  the  initial  letter  and  running 
down  the  alphabetical  list  till  found.  Not  too  many  words  should  ever  be  in 
any  one  list.  When  the  most  of  the  class  no  longer  need  the  first  list  of,  say, 
twenty  words,  the  teacher  may  supply  new  lists  (one  for  each  child,  and  usually 
mounted  on  cardboard  to  prevent  loss  and  mussing).  The  second  list  may  re- 
peat some  words  of  the  first  list,  if  they  are  still  needed.  The  teacher  must 
compose  the  lists  by  watching  the  children's  writing  needs,  not  from  any 
book  or  course  of  study. 

4.  Putting  on  the  blackboard  the  words  likely  to  give  trouble,  especially  the 
spellings  of  proper  names,  whenever  all  the  class  are  to  write  upon  a  common 
topic  which  the  teacher  has  developed  orally. 

5.  Combining  two  or  more  of  these  plans,  or  one  of  them  with  other  plans 
easily  devised. 

What  may  reasonably  be  expected  by  the  end  of  the  second  year. — 
All  that  was  expected  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  (see  p.  19). 
Greater  fluency  in  oral  composition.  The  ability  to  write  legibly 
with  easy  arm  movement  the  material  needing  to  be  written  daily. 
The  ability  to  spell — that  is,  write  as  word-wholes— at  least  from 
three  to  five  hundred  of  the  most  commonly  needed  words.*  "The 
majority  of  the  pupils  should,  if  given  a  subject  they  feel  like 
writing  about,  be  able  to  produce  three  or  four  sentences  with  a 
fair  degree  of  facility,  and  with  no  assistance  from  the  teacher  ex- 
cept what  is  derived  from  the  oral  preparation.  The  sentences 
should  show  some  sense  of  sequence,  and  the  desire  to  be  interest- 
ing. They  should  be  invariably  correct  in  the  matter  of  capitals 
and  ending  marks.  The  pupil's  power  should  always  be  measured 
by  the  first  writing,  not  by  a  corrected  and  rewritten  copy." 

Probably  the  minimum  of  other  mechanics  to  be  demanded  by 
the  end  of  the  second  grade  should  be:  A.  Capitals:  (1)  At  the 
beginning  of  a  sentence;  (2)  in  the  pronoun  "I";  (3)  in  writing  the 
child's  own  name  and  address;  (4)  in  days  of  the  week  which  he  may 
have  learned  (not  necessarily  all);  (5)  same  with  months  learned; 
(6)  same  with  holidays  learned;  (7)  in  beginning  each  line  of  poetry. 
B.  Final  marks:  (1)  Period  at  the  end  of  a  sentence;  (2)  period 
after  each  abbreviation;  (3)  question-mark.  C.  Commas:  (1)  Only 
such  as  are  needed  in  writing  the  child's  own  address.  D.  Abbre- 
viations: (1)  Days  of  the  week;  (2)  months  of  the  year;  (3)  Mr., 
Mrs.,  Dr. 

Grade  III. 

Listening. — If  any  person  has  learned  to  attend,  has  the  power 
to  profit  by  new  experiences  and  to  find  in  daily  events  food  for 
reflection  and  application  to  further  experiences,  his  education 
never  ceases,  even  should  schooling  be  denied  him.     Listening,  then, 

*  If  the  tin  her  hasn't  time  to  make  such  a  list  for  herself,  she  may  secure,  for  ten  cents,  the 
list  from  the  State  University  of  Vermilion,  South  Dakota. 


Language. — Grade  III. — Listening.  25 

is  an  important  habit  to  acquire,  and  by  the  end  of  the  third  grade, 
pupils  should  have  fairly  well-fixed  habits  of  listening  intelligently. 
The  teacher  may  hold  pupils  to  outside-of-school  observations  by 
questions  upon  the  rhythms  of  bird-songs  heard,  things  learned  on 
Saturday  and  Sunday,  and  by  commending  children  who  report 
on  interesting  experiences  in  everyday  life. 

Vocabulary  can  be  enriched  by  some  discussion  of  the  stories 
told  or  read  to  children,  questioning  upon  the  value  of  certain 
words  used  by  the  author  until  children  recognize  that  in  some 
places  only  one  word  could  rightly  be  chosen.  Then  they  begin 
to  notice  words  and  to  use  them  in  their  own  productions.  When 
some  words  are  particularly  well  chosen  by  an  author,  the  teacher 
may,  on  the  second  reading  of  the  story,  pause  to  let  some  child 
who  can  do  so  supply  the  words.  The  third  reading,  with  pauses 
at  the  same  places  as  before,  will  bring  the  words  from  half  a  dozen 
pupils  where  only  one  knew  them  the  first  time.  A  third-grade 
class  who  loved  Kipling's  "Riki  Tiki  Tavi,"  begged  for  its  reading 
time  after  time.  The  teacher  noted  that  on  the  seventh  reading 
whole  paragraphs  could  be  given  verbatim  by  many  members  of 
the  school,  and  that  every  child  could  give  at  least  a  score  of  the 
most  unique  or  interesting  phrases.  All  this  was  done  with  no 
intention  of  memorizing  on  the  part  of  either  pupils  or  teacher. 
Vocabulary  so  gathered  always  shows  in  children's  written  work, 
as  could  be  illustrated  by  dozens  of  quotations  from  their  work, 
did  space  allow.  One  instance  of  the  sort,  proving  that  vocabu- 
lary acquired  with  meaning  stays,  was  that  of  a  sixth-grade  pupil 
who  fluently  used  an  expression  unconsciously  learned  in  third 
grade,  and  not  used  after  that  time  until  he  said:  "In  third  grade, 

Miss  G told  us  how  the  Indian  hordes  came  down  at  midnight 

on  Cocheco  town,  and  how  her  own  great-uncle  bore  his  cruel 
scalp-mark  to  fourscore."  The  only  fault  was  a  confusion  of  rela- 
tionships, the  child  not  misquoting  Whittier. 

Children  in  the  third  grade  seem  to  be  actuated  by  a  growing 
sense  of  feeling.  This  leads  to  discrimination  in  values,  and  to 
free  play  of  the  imagination.  The  aesthetic  sense  is  strong;  words 
are  loved  for  their  imagery,  length,  rhythm,  color-tone,  etc.;  and 
"big  words,"  or  words  full  of  dignity,  humor,  sound  concordance, 
etc.,  are  tried  constantly.  As  a  consequence,  the  forms  of  litera- 
ture which  appeal  are  those  containing  (1)  humor,  like  the  "Uncle 
Remus"  tales,  "Just  So  Stories,"  "Letters  from  a  Cat,"  "Pinoc- 
chio,"  and  "Merry  Animal  Tales";  (2)  legends,  stories,  and  poetry, 
using  figurative  language;  (3)  stories  true  to  life,  including  such 
stories  as  "Tree  Dwellers"  and  "Early  Cave  Men,"  with  tales  of 


26  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

colonial  days,  and  of  Indian  life.  Experienced  teachers  will  find 
inspiration  to  renewed  effort  in  Lynn's  "A  Stepdaughter  of  the 
Prairie,"  a  book  that,  without  seeming  to  teach,  is  full  of  sugges- 
tions about  literature  for  children.  (See  also  Minnesota  Library 
List  for  third  grade.) 

Talking. — With  previous  training  well  done,  (see  grades  I  and 
II,)  pupils  now  make  rapid  strides  in  freedom  and  fluency,  because 
of  enriched  vocabulary.  Without  detriment  to  these  factors  of 
good  talking,  children  must  be  drilled  upon  such  errors  of  English 
as  are  likely,  if  not  conquered,  to  be  forever  troublesome.  It  is 
worth  the  teacher's  time  to  conquer  them  here,  and  to  make  pupils 
conscious  of  what  they  are  learning,  though  they  should  not  be- 
come self-conscious  or  "afraid  to  speak."  Language  games  play  a 
most  important  part,  and,  as  illustration  of  what  may  be  done,  a 
few  are  given  below.* 

Game  1.  This  game  is  like  a  spelling-match.  The  teacher  gives  out  the  fol- 
lowing words,  one  by  one: 

a  bubble  a  horn  a  kite  a  whistle 

a  potato  a  feather  a  flag  a  picture 

a  lesson  a  riddle  an  answer  a  ball 

a  bean-bag  a  wagon  a  tulip  a  leaf 

The  pupil  whose  turn  it  is,  should  reply  instantly,  choosing  the  most  fitting 
answer  from  the  following  sentences:  I  grew  it,  I  threw  it,  I  blew  it,  I  drew  it, 
I  flew  it,  I  knew  it.     It  is  a  failure  to  hesitate  or  to  give  the  wrong  answer. 

Game  2.  For  another  game,  the  teacher  may  give  out  the  same  words,  and 
the  pupil  whose  turn  it  is  may  respond  instantly  with  one  of  the  following  ques- 
tions: 

"Have  you  ever  known  one?"  "Have  you  ever  flown  one?" 

"Have  you  ever  blown  one?"  "Have  you  ever  thrown  one?" 

"Have  you  ever  shown  one?"  "Have  you  ever  grown  one?" 

Game  3.  Make  up  a  similar  one  for  the  class  to  play,  using  these  words: 
bought,  thought,  fought,  caught,  taught,  brought. 

Game  4.  A  similar  game  may  be  made,  using  the  following  sentences,  only 
there  will  be  no  rhyming  words  in  it: 

I  saw  it  I  wore  it.  I  sang  it.  I  showed  it. 

I  did  it.  I  stuck  it.  I  shook  it.  I  strung  it. 

I  chose  it.  I  drove  it.  I  swung  it.  I  spun  it. 

I  wrote  it.  I  ate  it.  I  rang  it.  I  hid  it. 

I  broke  it.  I  took  it.  I  dug  it.  I  bit  it. 

I  tore  it.  I  gave  it.  I  said  it.  I  wove  it. 

Children  of  this  age  like  the  "Goop"  stories,  as  children  of  a 
decade  ago  liked  Cox's  Brownies,  and  if  a  few  original  rhymes  can 
be  invented  by  the  teacher,  and  printed  on  a  card  with  some  draw- 
ings of  Goops  added,  much  will  be  done  to  correct  English  errors. 

*  From  p.  22  of  "Speaking  and  Writing,"  by  Maxwell,  Johnston,  and  Barnum. 


Language. — Grade  III. — Writing.  27 

Children  should  hold  clearer  standards  as  to  what  is  "a  good 
talk,"  and  be  ready  to  help  one  another  improve.  To  have  all  at- 
tend to  the  speaker  who  is  telling  a  story  known  to  all  is  not  easy, 
but  that  it  can  be  accomplished  has  been  proved  several  times. 

Standards  set  for  lower  grades  should  be  maintained  and  slightly 
raised.  Since  most  of  our  troubles  in  written  composition  come 
from  our  neglect  of  oral  composition,  the  lower-grade  teachers  can 
scarcely  be  too  rigid  in  forming  right  habits  in  oral  work.  While 
breaking  up  the  habit  of  running  sentences  together  by  over  use  of 
and,  so,  then,  etc.,  the  children's  sentences  may  become  short  and 
jerky;  but  this  is  not  so  bad  as  the  stringing  together  of  only  loosely 
related  ideas,  since  the  "choppy  sentence"  is  more  easily  cured  in 
later  grades  than  is  the  complete  lack  of  "sentence  feeling."  "In- 
distinct utterance,  poor  sentence  structure,  grammatical  mistakes, 
a  poverty  of  words,  and  a  lack  of  anything  like  fluency,"  should 
not  be  said  of  any  children's  English  when  they  have  finished 
the  elementary  grades. 

Writing. — "When  the  pupil  comes  to  put  on  paper  what  he  has 
to  say,  the  situation  becomes  complicated  by  the  entrance  of  fac- 
tors which  were  not  present  when  he  was  expressing  himself  orally. 
He  must  think  about  his  penmanship.  He  must  watch  his  spelling. 
He  must  look  out  for  his  capitals,  his  punctuation,  his  indention, 
and  all  that.  These  things  become  automatic,  or  nearly  so,  after 
years  of  training  and  practice;  so  that  educated  men  and  women 
are  required  to  give  little  or  no  thought  to  their  penmanship,  spell- 
ing, punctuation,  and  the  other  technicalities  of  written  expression. 
But  the  child  is  at  first  obliged  to  think  of  all  these  things  all  of  the 
time.  By  degrees,  however,  with  reasonably  good  instruction  and 
sufficient  practice  of  the  right  kind,  the  observance  of  the  simpler 
requirements  of  written  technique  becomes  habitual  to  him,  so 
that  by  the  time  the  pupil  has  completed  the  elementary-school 
course,  he  ought  to  be  fairly  free  from  the  necessity  of  giving  con- 
scious attention  to  the  mechanics  of  written  language.  The  few 
things  that  are  required  in  the  way  of  written  technicalities  must 
be  mastered  as  early  as  possible  in  the  course,  so  that  these  diffi- 
culties will  not  stand  too  long  in  the  way  of  the  freedom  and  spon- 
taneity of  the  child's  expression.  So  long  as  his  attention  is  dis- 
tracted from  the  thought  of  what  he  wants  to  say  by  thinking  of 
his  penmanship,  his  spelling,  his  punctuation,  and  similar  matters 
of  written  technique,  his  composition  is  likely  to  be  formal,  meagre, 
and  uninteresting.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would  be  folly  to  at- 
tempt to  cultivate  freedom  of  expression  by  allowing  children  to 


28  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

write  regardless  of  the  rules  of  punctuation,  spelling,  arrangement, 
and  the  like.  These  matters  of  written  technique  (and  we  are 
dealing  with  only  the  simplest  items  of  them  in  this  course  of 
study)  should  not,  during  the  process  of  writing,  hold  the  center 
of  consciousness. 

"In  handling  subjects  drawn  from  every-day  life  there  will  be 
need  at  first  for  the  teacher  to  exercise  skill  in  keeping  the  children's 
compositions  from  becoming  trite  and  trivial.  This  she  can  do  by 
training  children  to  discover  interest  in  common  things,  and  by 
suggesting  a  live  manner  of  treatment.  Nothing  in  the  world  is 
commonplace  unless  we  make  it  so.  Knowledge  and  interest, 
therefore,  are  necessary  conditions  for  good  work  in  composition. 
Children's  lives  are  crowded  with  incidents;  they  have  plenty  of 
ideas  and  opinions  which  they  are  eager  to  express.  Every  child 
who  is  not  feeble-minded  has  something  worth  saying  if  he  is  given 
a  decent  chance  to  say  it.  From  their  life  at  home,  in  the  streets, 
in  school;  from  their  sports,  amusements,  duties,  tasks;  from  the 
things  they  have  seen  and  heard  and  felt  and  done;  from  the 
things  they  read  and  the  things  they  imagine;  from  all  these  may 
be  drawn  an  almost  endless  variety  of  subjects,  full  of  the  breath 
of  life  and  the  actuality  of  experience. .  Some  children,  of  course, 
are  less  keen  in  their  observation  than  others,  and  all  children  need 
to  have  their  eyes  opened  and  their  wits  sharpened  to  see  interest- 
ing themes  in  the  incidents  and  experiences  which  make  up  their 
daily  life.  To  teach  children  to  observe  closely  and  to  think 
clearly  and  consecutively  is  one  of  the  chief  values  of  training  in 
composition."* 

"Teachers  are  inclined  sometimes  to  give  an  undue  amount  of 
dictation,  because  their  classes  happen  to  be  poorly  grounded  on 
the  mechanics;  and  they  postpone  original  work  until  a  satisfactory 
condition  obtains  with  respect  to  their  pupils'  grasp  of  technique. 
This  is  a  double  mistake.  Correctness  cannot  be  produced  from 
much  use  of  the  dictation  exercise,  because  the  kind  of  correctness 
it  teaches  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  carry  over  into  the  pupil's 
free  writing.  Moreover,  to  postpone  original  writing  until  the 
technique  has  been  fully  mastered  is  a  violation  of  a  vital  principle 
of  composition  teaching,  which  is  that  the  motive  for  the  mastery 
of  form  must  come  from  the  pupil's  interest  in  a  real  and  living 
content.  To  drill  for  a  long  time  for  correctness  is  death  to  all 
interest.  To  permit  children  to  write  without  regard  to  form  is 
quite  as  irrational.     They  must  be  trained  simultaneously  to  de- 


*  Quotation  from  Sheridan's  "Speaking  and  Writing  English." 


Language. — Grade  III. — What  to  Expect.  29 

velop  the  power  of  self-expression  and  the  knowledge  and  the  de- 
sire to  express  themselves  on  paper  in  accordance  with  the  estab- 
lished rules  of  correct  writing.  To  do  this  well,  as  has  been  said 
before,  is  the  real  test  of  the  good  teacher  of  written  composition."* 

Penmanship. — If  no  system  is  used,  there  should  at  least  be 
plenty  of  practice  in  (1)  position  of  body,  arm,  hand,  and  pencil; 
(2)  easy  movement  which  yet  gives  greater  control  over  lines,  so 
that  letters  are  now  well  formed,  though  form  is  still  subservient 
to  movement.  The  same  motives  as  those  indicated  in  second 
grade  will  operate  for  producing  pride  in  legible  work.  Still  other 
motives  to  use  are:  Wanting  the  paper  singled  out  as  "One  of  the 
good  ones";  having  an  exercise  sent  to  the  parents  as  evidence  of 
improvement;  writing  simple  invitations  to  some  room  festival,  or 
replying  to  invitations  from  another  room  or  class;  being  quick  to 
answer  in  writing  at  the  blackboard  some  written  question  of  the 
teacher's.  Children  should  write  from  about  25  to  35  letters  in  a 
minute,  and  ought  to  refer  to  the  teacher's  copy  of  lower-case 
letters  only  to  better  the  form  during  the  practice  period.  A  few 
of  the  unusual  capitals  will  still  need  to  be  copied  when  needed. 

Spelling. — See  second-grade  statement.  The  teacher  of  third 
grade  must  also  make  her  own  list  from  her  pupils'  writing  needs. 
It  should  include  about  two  or  three  hundred  words  additional  to 
those  of  the  second  grade.  The  plans  for  making  pupils  indepen- 
dent in  second  grade  should  be  used  in  third  (pp.  23-24). 

What  to  expect  by  the  end  of  the  third  year. — In  addition  to  what 
is  expected  in  grades  I  and  II,  third-year  pupils  should  show  some 
power  of  sustained  attention;  ability  to  judge  values  when  only 
two  or  three  situations  are  presented  and  when  the  difference  is 
still  somewhat  marked;  ability  to  tell  why  a  thing  is  liked  or  not — ■ 
that  is,  to  have  a  rudimentary  standard  for  judging  values;  and 
knowledge  of  how  to  work  independently,  using  books,  black- 
board, memorized  poems,  etc.,  whenever  the  teacher  cannot  assist. 
Besides  the  skill  in  penmanship  and  spelling  implied  above,  the 
minimum  mechanics  to  be  demanded  of  third  grade,  above  first 
and  second,  (see  pages  19  and  24,)  should  probably  be:  A.  Capi- 
tals used  (1)  in  all  proper  nouns;  (2)  in  all  days  of  the  week  and 
months  of  the  year;  (3)  abbreviations  of  the  names  of  the  months. 
B.  (1)  Abbreviations,  contractions,  homonyms,  etc.,  needed  for 
daily  work,  like  don't,  Vm,  to,  too,  two.  C.  (1)  Paragraph  form, 
including  indention  and  regular  margin;  in  original  compositions 
children  should  attempt  only  one  paragraph,  but  in  copying  work 
the  second  paragraph  will  often  be  needed. 

*  Quotation  from  Sheridan's  "Speaking  and  Writing  English." 


30  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Grade  IV. 

Listening. — Pupils  of  this  grade  can  now  "listen"  to  stories  not 
only  through  the  ear,  but  by  means  of  their  eyes,  since  they  have 
now  fairly  well  mastered  the  mechanics  of  reading.  This  ability 
should  be  encouraged,  as  a  means  of  engendering  the  "reading 
habit."  All  story-telling  and  reading  by  the  teacher  should  not 
be  given  up,  however,  since  the  values  named  for  their  use  in  lower 
grades  are  equally  operative  here. 

More  than  before,  the  recitations  become  a  source  of  listening. 
Fourth-grade  pupils  begin  to  reason  from  cause  to  effect,  and  are 
on  the  lookout  for  inaccuracies  in  facts  and  conclusions.  They  are 
verifying  their  earlier  concepts  and  generalizations,  and  want  proof 
for  opinions  different  from  their  own.  This  makes  them  good  lis- 
teners, and  good  critics  if  rightly  guided;  hence  the  good  recitation, 
with  its  opportunities  for  exchange  of  opinions,  for  the  asking  of 
vital  questions,  and  for  short  talks  on  interesting  topics,  is  the 
best  place  to  secure  intelligent  listening. 

In  games  especially,  this  tendency  to  "verify"  makes  children 
respect  law,  at  least  the  letter  of  the  law;  hence  they  like  literature 
that  deals  with  obedience  to  law  or  the  results  of  disobedience. 
Hall's  "Viking  Tales,"  "Pinocchio,"  "Robin  Hood,"  "William 
Tell,"  and  other  tales  of  courage,  such  as  are  found  in  history 
stories  and  in  lives  of  great  Americans,  are  especially  liked.  (See 
the  Minnesota  Library  List.) 

Talking. — At  this  age,  associations  of  ideas  are  numerous  and 
strong;  it  is  very  easy  for  a  child  to  follow  one  idea  to  the  most  dis- 
tant planet  through  the  associations  that  come  in  one  continuous 
train.  Many  games  can  be  devised  to  utilize  this  ability  and  turn 
to  account  the  vocabulary  thus  brought  to  light.  When,  however, 
it  becomes  necessary  for  a  child  to  select  a  few  from  the  numerous 
words  that  crowd  the  mind,  he  must  be  given  the  motive:  for 
the  sake  of  clearness,  or  to  prevent  himself  from  being  misunder- 
stood. 

In  attempting  to  describe  a  game  so  that  the  listener  can't  play 
it  incorrectly,  children  get  the  teacher's  meaning  of  being  clear, 
since,  as  one  child  after  the  other  tells  how  to  do  some  part  of  the 
game,  the  teacher  does  it  incorrectly  if  there  is  any  license  at  all 
for  so  doing.  To  illustrate,  the  children  plan  to  tell  the  teacher 
exactly  how  to  play  "fox  and  geese"  in  the  snow.  A  volunteer  be- 
gins, "First  make  a  ciicle."  The  teacher  makes  one — a  tiny  one, 
just  a  few  inches  in  diameter — on  the  floor,  then  waits  without  a 


Language. — Grade  IV. — -Talking.  31 

sign  for  the  next  direction.  The  child  who  volunteered,  and  oth- 
ers, quickly  raise  hands  to  add  the  dimension  of  the  circle.  As  the 
description  proceeds,  pupils  become  more  and  more  critical  of 
themselves  and  of  one  another,  not  wanting  the  teacher  to  "try"  a 
direction  until  the  children  feel  sure  it  is  correctly  stated. 

This  oral  work  can  be  followed  by  written  work  on  the  same 
theme.  Children  there  have  a  chance  to  check  themselves,  sen- 
tence by  sentence;  and  coherency  is  bound  to  increase. 

Planning  an  entertainment  for  another  room  also  sets  a  motive 
for  clearness,  and  the  need  of  supplying  unwritten  dialogue  so  that 
the  audience  which  is  not  familiar  with  the  story  can  follow  it, 
brings  just  the  sort  of  improvised  dramatizations  desired — -drama- 
tizations for  the  sake  of  self-expression,  not  primarily  for  gather- 
ing vocabulary  and  diction,  as  is  sometimes  wanted.  (See  pages 
237-241  for  illustrations  of  children's  supplementing  of  "Viking 
Tales.") 

If  encouraged  to  do  so,  children  gain  ease  of  expression,  increase 
their  vocabulary,  and  learn  to  be  coherent,  by  reporting  upon  the 
books  being  read  outside  of  school.  With  one  or  another  of  these 
strong  motives  for  clearness,  "Make  others  like  the  story  as  well 
as  you  do";  "Make  them  see  the  pictures  or  the  joke";  "Help  them 
get  the  drift  of  the  story  to  the  point  desired";  the  children  may 
be  asked  to  give  brief  summaries  of  their  stories  to  the  point  where 
some  oral  reading  is  to  be  done. 

Picture  study  can  also  be  turned  to  good  account  here.  Acting 
pictures  for  others  to  guess  can  be  followed  by  describing  pictures 
for  others  to  name. 

There  are  two  main  kinds  of  descriptions  to  be  worked  for,  one 
at  a  time.  There  is  the  kind  which  names  the  central  idea  and 
then  gradually  builds  up  the  details  to  make  the  picture  perfectly 
clear.  This  is  probably  better  for  sixth  grade  than  for  fourth.  The 
other  is  to  make  the  description  end  with  the  most  important  idea, 
as  Alice  Cary  does  in  her  poem,  "An  Order  for  a  Picture";  that  is, 
to  work  towards  a  climax.  This  is  especially  valuable  if  children 
are  to  "guess"  the  picture  described,  since  the  speaker  must  make 
a  longer  talk,  with  the  motive  of  preventing  the  right  guess  until 
the  final  clue  is  given,  and  the  listeners  make  many  associations, 
reviewing  several  pictures  suggested  by  the  description. 

Nature-study  material,  literature,  cities,  or  people  of  different 
countries  in  geography,  and  characters  in  history,  may  be  similarly 
used.  Here  is  a  "riddle"  made  by  a  child  after  the  class  had  all 
studied  melons,  gourds,  etc.,  in  the  fall: 


32  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

"I  am  thinking  of  the  fruit  of  a  common  plant.  It  is  round  like  a  ball.  It 
is  a  dark  or  reddish  yellow.  [Here  half  the  school  raised  hands  and  volunteered 
'orange.']  No.  It  has  a  harder  skin  than  the  orange.  [A  few  hands  are  raised; 
'gourd'  is  named. 1  No.  It  belongs  to  the  gourd  family,  but  is  usually  much  larger 
than  a  gourd.  [A  few  volunteer  'watermelon.']  Cattle  like  it  to  eat  raw,  but  we 
care  for  it  most  when  mother  makes  it  into  a  pie.     ['Pumpkin,'  say  many.]     Yes." 

To  show  that  a  quite  different  treatment  is  possible,  a  second 
"riddle"  with  the  same  answer  is  quoted.: 

"My  home  is  in  the  garden — not  the  flower  garden,  though  my  blossom  is 
pretty;  it  is  shaped  like  a  morning  glory,  but  is  larger  and  is  bright  yellow.  I 
grow  on  a  vine.  The  vine  has  to  run  on  the  ground  because  its  fruit  is  too  heavy 
to  let  it  climb  a  pole,  as  beans  do.  When  I  was  little  I  was  green,  but  as  I  grew 
ripe,  I  turned  yellow — just  about  the  color  of  my  blossom.  I  have  a  hard  rind, 
so  I  won't  decay  as  I  rest  on  the  damp  ground.  Children  like  to  make  me  into 
a  Jack-o-lantern." 

Children  should  be  encouraged  to  make  free  use  of  all  room 
material  in  illustrating  their  talks.  This  teaches  them  to  observe, 
to  relate  ideas,  and  to  be  ingenious  in  using  material  at  hand,  while 
the  teacher  is  helped  to  know  whether  pupils  have  the  correct  idea 
or  not.  One  child,  who  planned  the  acting  of  the  opening  stanza 
of  a  poem  learned  by  the  school — Whittier's  "In  School  Days" — 
for  all  who  could  do  so  to  guess  and  to  recite,  had  one  child  hang 
her  hands  over  the  teacher's  desk  to  show  "raggedness,"  a  few 
crouch  by  the  desk  for  "sumachs,"  but  the  greater  number  running 
round  and  round  the  desk.  Every  onlooker  at  once  recognized 
the  "running  blackberry  vines."  Though  it  was  funny,  the 
teacher  very  soberly  questioned  about  why  vines  are  said  to  "run" 
and  how  that  sort  of  running  could  be  better  shown. 

Games  for  correcting  English  errors  are  probably  more  effective 
in  this  grade  than  elsewhere,  since  the  children  care  much  for  "the 
rule  of  the  game,"  and  choose  to  play  a  well-known  game  such  as 
"The  Black  Art"  even  when  the  real  point  is  lost  by  their  knowing 
how  it  is  done.  As  this  game  is  especially  good  to  correct,  "Is  it 
them  leaves?"  and  to  teach  this,  that,  these,  and  those,  the  teacher 
does  well  to  encourage  it,  even  by  suggesting  slight  variations. 

Black  Art.— A  child  who  knows  the  rule  of  the  game  leaves  the  room  while 
the  rest  select  some  object.  On  his  return,  the  teacher,  or  a  second  child  who 
knows  the  game,  asks:  "Is  it  the  clock?"  "Is  it  that  eraser?"  "Is  it  this  apple?" 
"Is  it  these  flowers?"     "Is  it  Lulu's  shoe?"     "Is  it  Mary's  ribbon?"     To  all  but 

the  last,  the  child  answers,  "It  is  not  the ."     This  time  he  says,  "It  is  Mary's 

ribbon."  (He  knows  because  the  questioner  named  something  black  in  the 
question  before  the  one  containing  the  correct  object.) 

This  can  be  varied  by  use  of  this,  that,  these,  and  those;  by  changing  to  colors; 
by  having  a  definite  number  of  questions  agreed  upon;  etc. 

Good  English  is  mastered  by  practice,  and  the  earlier  the  prac- 
tice fixes  the  correct  forms  in  the  child's  mind  and  tongue,  the 


Language. — Grade  IV. — Writing.  33 

better  for  him.  Drill  should  not  cease  just  because  a  child  knows 
that  he  shouldn't  say  "I  seen  it";  it  should  continue  until  he  never 
says  or  inclines  to  say,  "I  seen  it." 

Writing. — The  mechanics  of  writing,  penmanship,  spelling,  and 
simpler  punctuation,  are  by  fourth  grade  fairly  well  (though  of 
course  not  fully)  mastered.  Because  children  are  thus  free  to  give 
more  attention  to  thought  than  to  mechanics,  they  begin  to  enjoy 
writing,  and  voluntarily  do  much,  even  outside  of  school.  Every 
teacher  now  has  brought  to  her  little  essays,  stories,  poems  (rhymes), 
and  short  plays  which  the  children  are  voluntarily  writing.  By 
kindly  criticism  of  these  efforts,  by  encouraging  their  continuance, 
and  by  using  them  (with  the  writer's  consent)  to  incite  other  pupils 
to  similar  effort,  the  teacher  will  find  written  composition  not  diffi- 
cult to  secure. 

Besides  the  topics  chosen  for  the  voluntary  compositions,  the 
teacher  will  find  fourth-grade  pupils  interested  in  bringing  to  every 
recitation  some  supplementary  material,  gathered  from  parents  or 
books  at  home  and  not  known  to  the  majority  of  the  class.  The 
child  thus  has  a  strong  motive  for  being  accurate  and  clear.  The 
class  criticism  should  be  mainly  on  accuracy  and  clearness.  If 
other  pupils  have  read  what  disagrees  with  some  statement  made, 
the  point  should  be  challenged  and  all  should  then  work  together 
to  secure  the  best  authority  on  the  question.  If  points  are  not 
made  clear,  as  proven  by  questions  or  by  another  child's  reproduc- 
tion of  what  was  said  being  unsatisfactory  to  the  one  who  wrote 
it,  the  writer  must  try  again  to  make  himself  clear. 

Assigned  topics  should  possess  personal  interest  to  the  pupils, 
should  be  possible  of  execution,  not  too  long,  and  very  definite. 
Perhaps  teachers  err  more  often  on  this  last  point  than  on  any 
other,  for  such  topics  as  "Dogs,"  "My  Trip  West,"  "What  I  did 
last  summer,"  etc.,  are  commonly  assigned.  "It  is  impossible  for 
any  child  to  write  in  an  interesting  manner  upon  such  a  subject 
within  the  limits  of  a  single  paragraph.  At  best,  it  can  be  no  more 
than  a  bare  catalog  of  events.  Within  the  compass  of  any  vaca- 
tion, long  or  short,  there  is  a  score  of  incidents  and  experiences 
exactly  suitable  for  narrating  or  describing  in  the  written  para- 
graph, because  they  give  opportunity  for  striking  and  vivid  detail; 
but  to  ask  a  child  to  set  down  in  a  single  paragraph  the  doings  of  a 
whole  vacation  is  to  foredoom  him  to  failure.  Teachers  should, 
therefore,  narrow  their  subjects.  This  focuses  thinking,  establishes 
a  single  point  of  view,  and  makes  it  possible  for  the  child  to  put  his 
own  thinking  into  his  composition.  After  that,  even,  it  will  be 
found  necessary  to  train  children  to  single  out  some  particular 


34  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

points  in  their  specific  subjects,  so  as  to  make  some  one  idea  stand 
out  prominently."  There  is  no  doubt  that,  with  even  little  guid- 
ance, pupils  in  grade  IV  can  pick  out  and  hold  the  central  or  bigger 
thoughts;  can  hold  a  central  thought  and  work  around  it;  can  show 
the  relation  to  it  of  a  few  of  the  minor  ideas. 

For  keeping  up  drill  in  the  mechanics,  nothing  will  be  more 
helpful  than  a  continued  use  of  blackboard  questions  and  answers, 
with  such  adaptations  as  are  necessary  to  fit  the  size  of  the  class 
and  blackboard  space. 

"The  dictation  exercise  is  useful  in  developing  the  power  of  self- 
criticism,  because  of  the  opportunity  it  affords  pupils  to  correct 
their  own  papers  in  every  minute  detail  by  comparing  them  with 
the  teacher's  blackboard  copy  (uncovered  after  the  writing)  or  the 
printed  original.  No  exercises  are  more  important  than  exercises 
in  which  the  pupil  corrects  his  own  written  work.  Careful  and  in- 
telligent criticism  of  his  own  work  fixes  correct  habits  and  develops 
a  habit  of  discrimination  which  helps  him  to  undertake  new  work 
more  confidently  and  to  execute  it  more  accurately.  The  dicta- 
tion exercise  is  an  especially  good  starting  point  for  training  of 
self-correction  because  here  the  field  of  criticism  is  limited  to  a 
small  number  of  points,  all  of  which  have  to  do  with  the  mechanics 
of  writing,  and  all  of  which,  besides,  are  arbitrarily  determined  by 
the  matter  dictated.  A  formula  for  correction,  suited  to  the  grade, 
may  be  written  upon  the  board,  or  upon  a  card  which  each  pupil 
has  on  his  desk.  Such  a  formula  contains,  let  us  say,  the  following 
points: 

1.  Indenting  the  paragraph.  4.  Apostrophe.  6.  Quotation  marks. 

2.  Capitals.  5.   Comma.  7.  Spelling. 

3.  Periods. 

The  pupils  are  instructed  at  first  to  look  through  their  papers 
for  one  kind  of  mistake  at  a  time,  until  they  have  gone  through 
the  list.  They  correct  each  error  as  they  find  it.  In  this  way  not 
many  errors  will  escape  them.  After  a  while  they  will  outgrow  the 
need  of  the  formula  as  a  correction  chart;  but  at  the  beginning  it 
serves  a  very  useful  purpose.  It  helps  to  systematize  the  correc- 
tion work,  and  impresses  upon  the  pupil's  mind,  more  effectively 
than  talking  commonly  can,  what  the  big  matters  of  written  tech- 
nique are. 

"Copying  continues  to  have  a  value;  but  a  'time  limit'  should 
be  set  to  exercises  in  copying,  if  a  pupil's  power  of  observation  and 
accuracy  are  to  be  rightly  measured.  A  teacher  cannot  measure 
the  power  of  all  the  individuals  in  her  class  if  some  are  given  twice 
as  long  as  others  to  finish  the  same  exercise."* 

*  Sheridan. 


Language. — Grade  IV. — Letter- Writing.  35 

The  need  of  writing  dialogue  to  be  used  in  room-plays  will  give 
a  strong  motive  for  mastering  the  correct  placing  of  quotation- 
marks  and  the  use  of  the  comma  preceding  a  simple  quotation. 

Though  the  mastery  of  the  apostrophe  may  well  wait  until  the 
fifth  grade,  the  teacher  of  fourth  grade  may  give  such  parts  of  the 
work  as  her  pupils  need.  (See  pp.  245-251  for  full  lesson-plan  on 
this  topic.) 

The  writing  of  simple  letters  and  notes,  including  the  addressing 
of  the  envelope,  are  also  new  bits  of  form  to  master  here.  It  is  bet- 
ter to  use  one  form  consistently  throughout  a  school  than  to  try 
several  and  perhaps  confuse  the  children.  Since  every  child  will 
need  to  write  letters  after  he  leaves  school  and  may  never  need  to 
write  any  other  form  of  composition,  this  work  should  be  emphasized 
and  made  as  interesting  as  possible  in  every  grade  from  this  on. 

"The  form,  or  arrangement,  of  the  letter  is  a  matter  wholly  sep- 
arate from  the  writing  of  the  letter  itself.  It  is  a  matter  of  pure 
technique,  and  should  be  taken  up  as  such.  Thus,  a  letter  should 
be  placed  on  the  board,  or  hectographed,  and  the  attention  of  the 
pupils  called  to  the  mechanical  placing  of  the  several  parts.  After 
sufficient  study,  the  letter  should  be  copied  by  the  pupils.  The 
letters  that  the  teacher  puts  before  the  children  for  study  of  the 
form,  should  be  models  of  letter  writing  as  well  as  of  correctness  of 
mechanical  arrangement.  The  body  of  the  letters  so  used  should 
be  short  (not  more  than  five  or  six  sentences  in  the  fourth  grade), 
but  they  ought  to  read  like  real  letters  from  real  children.  Noth- 
ing should  be  said  about  the  body  of  these  letters  at  this  time,  but 
the  children  will  catch  the  spirit  of  them  without  comment  from 
the  teacher.  Later  on,  these  same  letters,  or  others,  should  be 
dictated  to  test  the  children's  knowledge  of  the  form.  All  models 
presented  children  should  conform  strictly  in  arrangement  and 
punctuation  to  the  standard  letter  form  adopted.  When  the  form 
has  been  well  taught,  the  work  of  writing  original  letters  should 
begin.  It  is  the  almost  universal  experience  of  teachers  that  the 
letters  which  children  write  in  school  are  painfully  unnatural  and 
uninteresting.  That  is  because  they  have  usually  no  real  letter  to 
answer,  no  real  person  to  whom  to  write,  and  no  reason  or  desire 
at  that  particular  time  to  write  any  kind  of  letter  to  anybody. 
So  far  as  it  is  possible,  therefore,  the  letters  written  in  school 
should  be  real  letters  to  real  people."* 

Penmanship. — If  no  system  is.  used  to  give  the  teacher  her  out- 
lines, she  should,  in  fourth  grade,  drill,  as  before,  on  movement, 
but  may  now  give  even  more  attention  to  form,  size,  and  slant  of 

*  Sheridan. 


36  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

letters.  In  fact,  the  final  handwriting  of  the  child  will  now  begin 
to  be  formed,  hence  he  should  be  made  conscious  of  the  goal.  He 
should  not  compete  with  others,  however,  so  much  as  with  his  own 
record.  He  should  be  able  to  write  well  and  with  muscular  move- 
ment about  35  to  45  letters  a  minute.  A  fortnightly,  weekly,  or 
monthly  specimen  of  a  child's  handwriting,  selected  from  any 
written  exercise  of  the  day,  will  serve  a  double  purpose.  It  will 
help  the  child  to  check  his  own  improvement  and  it  will  make  him 
careful  about  all  written  work,  since  he  doesn't  know  which  exer- 
cise will  be  chosen  to  represent  him.  Unless  penmanship  is  kept 
up  to  the  standard  in  all  classes  the  special  writing  period  will  have 
little  value.  It  is  wise  not  to  select  penmanship  specimens  on  a 
given  day  for  all  pupils,  but  to  make  the  individual  selections  at 
times  which  will  either  encourage  or  prod  a  child  to  further  effort. 
Work  below  standard  should  be  redone  outside  of  school  hours. 

Spelling.— Throughout  fourth  grade,  as  before,  greater  emphasis 
should  be  placed  upon  the  habitual  spelling  of  small  words  needed 
daily  in  every  form  of  written  exercise  rather  than  upon  longer 
unusual  words.  However,  the  rapid  oral  vocabulary  acquisition  of 
third-grade  pupils  and  the  need  of  its  use  in  writing  in  fourth  grade, 
makes  necessary  a  separate  period  for  (1)  learning  how  to  look  at 
words,  (2)  how  to  note  hard  places,  (3)  how  to  relate  the  word  to 
others  that  are  similar,  and,  hence,  (4)  how  to  master  the  word. 
Pupils  should  feel  sure  of  their  spelling  of  from  700  to  1000  common 
words,  aside  from  their  individual  mastery  of  from  100  to  300  odd 
words  met  in  reading,  geography,  etc. 

What  should  be  expected  by  the  end  of the  fourth  grade. — All  required 
before  in  the  way  of  having  something  to  say,  and  of  saying  it  well 
to  a  sympathetic  audience  and  while  standing  on  both  feet. 

With  the  grasp  of  a  central  idea  about  which  subordinate  ideas 
cluster,  some  of  the  pupils  can  be  led  to  use  when,  which,  and  while, 
as  connectives;  but  it  is  better  to  keep  sentences  short  and  clear 
than  to  change  them  into  long,  meandering  sentences  which  would 
destroy  the  children's  "sentence  feeling." 

More  freedom  is  seen  in  written  work,  because  children  are  in 
large  measure  now  released  from  detailed  attention  to  the  mechan- 
ics. Yet  accuracy  in  using  acquired  knowledge  on  a  short,  inter- 
esting composition,  should  outrank  mere  quantity  poorly  done. 

Children  should  have  acquired  a  few  standards  for  self-criti- 
cism, and  no  work  should  be  handed  in  until  it  is  as  perfect  as  the 
child  knows  how  to  make  it. 

Besides  the  mechanics  already  named  for  grades  I,  II,  and  III, 
and  implied  under  Penmanship  and  Spelling,  pupils  should  be  held 


Language. — Grade  V. — Listening.  37 

for:  A.  Captials:  (1)  In  all  proper  names  used;  (2)  as  needed  in 
writing  simple  letters  and  notes,  and  addressing  an  envelope;  (3) 
as  needed  in  the  undivided  quotation;  (4)  titles  of  stories,  poems, 
books,  etc.  B.  Final  Marks:  (1)  Exclamation-point.  C.  Com- 
mas: (1)  In  a  series  of  words;  (2)  in  writing  a  simple  quotation; 
(3)  as  needed  in  letter  forms.  D.  Abbreviations,  contractions, 
homonyms,  etc.:  (1)  All  needed  for  daily  work;  (2)  apostrophe  in  a 
few  simple  genitives.  E.  Other  forms  of  punctuation  as  needed  to 
aid  clearness  of  thought:  (1)  Quotation-marks;  (2)  poetical  forms 
(children  now  composing  rhymes  or  poems). 

Grade  V. 

Listening. — Besides  all  sources  used  before,  (see  Grades  I  to  IV,) 
teachers  of  the  fifth  grade  and  above  should  make  constantly 
greater  and  greater  use  of  the  recitation,  and,  in  addition,  should 
urge  pupils  to  listen  to  speakers  everywhere.  Secure  the  coopera- 
tion of  the  superintendent,  so  that  he  and  other  visitors  may  occa- 
sionally tell  an  anecdote,  make  a  speech,  or  tell  a  story. 

Pupils  begin  now  to  show  a  real  appreciation  of  values  in  talks 
heard,  in  nature,  and  in  the  lives  of  eminent  citizens.  In  attempt- 
ing to  voice  this  appreciation  and  discrimination  of  values,  children 
will  especially  need  descriptive  words  (adjectives  and  adverbs), 
though  of  course  other  parts  of  speech  will  also  be  added  to  their 
vocabulary.  If  encouraged  to  do  so,  they  will  be  on  the  lookout 
for  usable  words  in  talks  heard  and  in  reading  done  until  a  rich 
vocabulary  of  descriptive  words  becomes  theirs. 

Listening  to  quotations  from  good  literature,  selected  to  fit  the 
general  topic  under  discussion,  usually  ends  in  one  or  all  of  several 
things:  (1)  Vocabulary  increase  from  just  the  hearing;  (2)  chil- 
dren's keeping  a  "dictionary"  of  quotations,  instead  of  one  of  words 
as  in  second  grade  (in  loose-leaf  note-books,  so  that  the  quotations 
gathered  can  be  classified  under  such  needed  titles  as  Autumn, 
Spring,  Fire,  Wind,  Trees,  Snow,  Dress;  and  quotations  may  either 
be  copied,  or  referred  to  by  author,  volume,  page,  and  line);  (3) 
pupils  grow  interested  and  read  more  for  themselves.  While  chil- 
dren are  accumulating  a  lengthy  vocabulary,  lessons  and  games 
which  demand  discrimination  in  their  use  will  be  needed  to  unite 
ear  and  tongue  in  favoring  correct  usage. 

Lack  of  training  in  listening  to  good  literature,  as  to  good  music, 
causes  an  individual  to  miss  educative  opportunities.  He  hears  a 
story  or  talk,  and  knows  in  a  general  way  that  it  was  pleasing;  but 
he  doesn't  know  why,  and  hence  cannot  make  his  own  the  idea 
that  made  it  pleasing.     If  he  learns  early  to  listen,  and  then  is  led 


38  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

to  note  whether  a  talk  was  pleasing  because  of  the  thought  or  of  the 
expression,  later  analyzing  each  of  these,  he  has  a  background  for 
his  own  compositions.  The  child  of  ten  or  twelve  begins  to  realize 
how  big  the  world  is,  and  how  many  adventures  lie  ahead  of  him 
and  his  companions.  That  he  may  have  some  notion  of  what  to 
expect,  he  reads  stories  of  adventure,  and  stories  of  men  and  women 
who  are  making  present  social  conditions.  He  likes  to  hear  read 
or  told  the  Arthurian  legends,  tales  of  Ulysses  (especially  when 
recognized  as  an  allegory),  Beowulf,  Roland,  etc.,  the  story  of 
Perseus  and  Medea,  tales  of  local  and  state  history,  and  of  his- 
torical characters  everywhere  in  the  United  States.  He  also  likes 
Ernest  Thompson  Seton's  stories,  as  well  as  books  like  Poe's  "The 
Gold  Bug"  and  Stevenson's  "Treasure  Island,"  though  these  are 
too  difficult  for  class  use  in  the  oral  reading  hour. 

Talking. — Before  this,  pupils  have  talked  so  unconsciously  that 
if  parents  and  teachers  have  been  at  all  thoughtful,  freedom  has  not 
been  hard  to  secure.  Now,  however,  in  the  fifth,  or  sometimes  in 
the  sixth  grade,  the  child  begins  naturally  to  be  self-conscious,  and 
extra  effort  must  be  made  to  ignore  all  results  of  the  "awkward 
age."  Feeling  his  own  weaknesses,  he  giggles  or  hesitates  when  he 
recites,  and  is  inclined  to  ease  his  own  feelings  by  laughing  at  simi- 
lar signs  of  self-consciousness  in  his  companions.  The  teacher 
must,  by  gentle  measures,  by  precept,  and  by  example,  continue  to 
make  all  listeners  into  a  "sympathetic  audience."  Through  the 
use  of  stories  about  people  of  other  lands,  their  dress,  their  speech, 
their  games,  their  customs  of  all  kinds,  children  may  be  given  many 
standards  instead  of  just  one.  If  the  teacher  can  lead  children  to 
see  the  beauties  and  picturesqueness,  rather  than  the  oddities,  of 
other  people's  dress  and  speech,  he  will  be  doing  much  to  arouse 
the  spirit  of  cosmopolitanism  so  much  talked  about  now.  If  sug- 
gestion is  not  effective,  children  must  be  forced  into  courteous  at- 
tention, into  absolutely  no  laughing  at  one  another,  though  laugh- 
ing with  one  another  over  certain  situations  may  well  be  encouraged. 
Not  a  person  in  the  world  is  so  free  from  awkwardness  of  some  sort 
as  to  have  the  right  to  ridicule  others,  and  nothing  more  quickly 
betrays  provincialism  (either  in  city  or  in  country)  than  this  "mak- 
ing fun"  of  another  because  he  fails  to  conform  in  some  minor  de- 
tail to  the  one  (and  only  one)  standard  known  to  the  laugher. 
It  is  traveled,  cultured  people  who  have  seen  much  of  life,  have 
recognized  the  fineness  of  character  in  a  rude  tent-dweller,  have 
visited  many  localities  and  known  numerous  ways  of  doing  one 
thing,  who  know  that  forms  are  very  superficial  bases  for  the  judg- 
ing of  worths.     Let  the  audience,  then,  be  courteous  and  sympa- 


Language. — Grade  V.— Writing.  39 

thetic,  looking  for  what  is  good  no  matter  how  hidden,  adversely 
criticizing  the  bad  only  when  such  criticism  will  help  the  speaker. 

Narration  of  interesting  experiences  (actual  or  imaginary);  de- 
scriptions of  people  in  geography,  history,  or  literature;  descriptions 
of  birds,  trees,  and  gardens,  from  nature  study  or  general  lessons; 
and  explanations  of  how  to  play  games,  or  to  make  some  bit  of  ap- 
paratus in  manual  training,  some  garment  in  sewing,  or  some  dish 
in  cooking;  are  all  means  for  the  securing  of  (1)  something  to  say, 
and  (2)   saying  it   (a)  interestingly,   (b)   fluently,  and  (c)  clearly. 

Poetry  committed  to  memory  and  recited  verbatim,  and  stories, 
jokes,  anecdotes,  and  incidents,  given  in  the  child's  own  words  but 
worked  over  often  enough  to  insure  good  telling,  will  be  valuable 
aids  to  good  talking.  Children  may  now  learn  to  choose  the  essen- 
tials or  the  non-essentials  which  make  a  given  topic  interesting  or 
clear,  and  then  to  develop  those  points,  not  simply  relating  a  list 
of  events  associated  by  contiguity  alone.  The  use  of  a  slip  of 
paper  containing  a  few  headings  may  be  encouraged  to  induce 
thinking  before  speaking. 

Because  of  the  tendency  to  self-consciousness,  enunciation  will 
be  one  of  the  things  needing  attention;  but  since  children  rather 
like  enunciation  drills,  such  as  the  old-time  Theophilus  Thistle  and 
Peter  Piper  rhymes,  mumbling  need  not  prevail.  Errors  of  gram- 
mar, local  and  individual,  are  omnipresent;  the  same  sorts  of  drills 
as  those  given  before  must  be  used,  but  varied,  of  course,  to  suit 
the  development  of  the  pupils.  Though  no  grammar  is  taught  as 
such,  pupils  may  well  hear  and  learn  by  incidental  use  the  terms, 
subject,  verb,  noun,  descriptive  word,  or  even  adjective  and  adverb. 
Posters  containing  such  questions  as,  Do  you  say,  "He  doesn't  catch 
any  fish"?  or  Did  he  say,  "My,  my!  my  body  is  broken!"?  accompanied 
by  pictures  of  Simple  Simon  and  Humpty-Dumpty  respectively,  so 
that  pupils  tend  to  answer,  "Yes,  I  do  say,  'He  doesn't  catch  any  fish,' 
when  he  fishes  in  a  pail!"  or,  "Yes,  he  did  say,  'My,  my!  my  body  is 
broken!'  "  help  children  correct  "he  don't"  and  "is  broke."  Any  pic- 
tures and  suitable  sentences  may  be  used,  and  they  may  be  large 
enough  for  all  to  see  many  times  a  day,  unconsciously  answering 
each  time;  or  many  small  cards  may  be  used,  thus  making  a  game 
for  oral  or  for  written  work,  teaching,  in  the  latter  case,  the  correct 
use  of  quotation-marks  as  well. 

Writing. — If  a  class  has  successfully  done  all  required  in  grades 
below  this,  the  emphasis  may  now  well  be  put  upon  two  lines  of 
work:  (1)  letter  writing,  and  (2)  written  vocabulary  acquisition. 
Letters  may  now  contain  at  least  two  paragraphs,  with  two  such 
distinct  themes  as  to  give  pupils  the  correct  paragraph  idea  and 


40  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

not  the  erroneous  one  so  commonly  expressed  by  even  high-school 
graduates,  "I  thought  the  page  would  look  better  to  be  broken  up 
into  paragraphs;"  "I  like  best  to  read  books  containing  short  para- 
graphs, so  I  thought  I'd  make  mine  short;"  or  "It  seemed  about 
time  to  indent."  If  one  boy  is  writing  to  another  about  his  new 
sled,  for  example,  let  him  put  into  one  paragraph  all  he  plans  to 
say  about  how  he  made  his  sled,  and  in  the  second  paragraph,  what 
fun  he  and  others  have  had  with  it.  The  conventionalities  given 
before  should  be  observed. 

Vocabulary  may  be  gained  through  games,  through  united  class 
effort  (see  pages  251-252  for  illustrations),  and  by  planned  lessons 
for  the  purpose,  including  the  writing  of  simple  rhymes  (compli- 
mented by  being  called  poetry). 

Dictionary  work  can  now  be  made  to  aid  all  language  efforts, 
and  lessons  on  certain  mechanics  such  as  quotation-marks  and 
the  use  of  the  apostrophe  (see  pages  98,  245-251),  can  be  made 
interesting  and  also  related  to  other  lessons. 

The  continuance  of  the  plan  mentioned  on  p.  34,  of  frequently 
writing  questions  and  answers,  will  secure  fluency  as  children  learn 
to  think  in  writing,  will  help  the  spelling  of  all  little  words,  and 
give  a  certain  amount  of  ease  in  sentence  structure.  "The  coop- 
erative work  of  teacher  and  pupil  is  made  more  impressive  if  the 
blackboard  is  brought  into  use  in  working  out  improvement  in  the 
sequence  of  thought,  the  sentence  structure,  and  the  choice  of 
words.  The  teacher  may  copy  upon  it  compositions  which  are  to 
be  criticised  by  the  class;  or  he  may  use  it  for  presenting  a  model 
composition  for  the  pupils  to  follow  in  their  own  oral  or  written 
constructions.  One  of  the  best  ways  to  interest  and  to  improve  a 
class,  particularly  the  poorly  equipped  or  the  indifferent  members, 
is  to  have  pupils  write  their  own  compositions  on  the  board,  instead 
of  on  paper.  This  method  can  be  used  with  great  profit  in  a  grade 
as  low  as  the  third,  and  is  increasingly  valuable  in  higher  grades. 
Here  the  writer  is  certain  of  an  audience,  and  equally  certain  of  an 
immediate  estimate  of  his  effort.  He  desires  the  appreciation  of 
this  audience,  and  wishes  to  avoid  any  unfavorable  criticism  from 
it.  Therefore  it  is  natural  for  him  to  look  over  his  work,  correct- 
ing his  own  blunders  before  reading  it  aloud  to  the  class  for  their 
comments.  Such  exercises  are  certain  to  develop  the  appreciation 
of  the  difference  between  orderly  presentation  of  events  and  aim- 
less wandering;  to  deepen  the  feeling  for  correct  structure,  and  the 
knowledge  of  the  right  use  of  capitals  and  elementary  punc- 
tuation-marks."* 

*  Sheridan. 


Language. — Grade  V. — Spelling.  41 

Spelling. — Oral  spelling  will  become  more  and  more  valuable  as 
pupils  learn  to  visualize  words  and  name  the  letters  from  these  men- 
tal pictures.  As  said  before,  copying  and  dictation  have  some 
values  (see  grades  II  to  IV.)  "Selections  for  copying  for  all  grades 
should  be  interesting,  and  in  the  higher  grades  they  should  have  real 
literary  quality.  National  songs  and  selections  frequently  repeated 
orally  are  suitable  material  for  copying.  It  is  notorious  that  chil- 
dren are  seldom  able  to  write  such  things  correctly.  This  is  be- 
cause the  words  are  mostly  learned  by  ear." 

Penmanships — For  many  of  the  retarded  children  who  reach  the 
legal  age  for  leaving  school  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  grade,  hand- 
writing is  permanently  fixed.  Other  pupils  are  not  harmed  by 
much  practice  at  this  point,  and  a  cursory  study  of  several  children 
shows  that  at  about  the  age  of  twelve,  there  arises  a  definite  inter- 
est in  hand-writing,  so  that  pupils  voluntarily  spend  half  hours  in 
practicing  on  just  one  letter  well  made  by  a  favorite  teacher. 
Teachers  often  wonder  what  to  do  about  left-handed  children.  A 
London  experiment  made  in  1911-12  "gives  some  slight  indication 
that  left-handed  children  deteriorate  somewhat  through  being 
forced  to  write  with  the  right  hand,  and  consequently  it  is  sug- 
gested that  the  art  of  writing  be  practiced  by  the  superior  hand 
only."*  The  specific  penmanship  errors  of  the  grade  and  of  indi- 
viduals must,  by  practice,  be  eradicated.  The  device  of  testing 
pupils'  improvement  by  comparison  of  specimens  of  their  hand- 
writing with  selected  standards  in  some  penmanship  scale  is  worth 
using  throughout  the  remaining  grades  of  the  elementary  school. 
Poor  papers  in  class  must  not  be  tolerated.  Penmanship  must 
show  legibility,  easy  movement,  letters  well  formed,  and  of  uni- 
form height,  slant,  and  spacing.  The  rate  should  be  about  45  to 
60  letters  per  minute. 

What  to  expect  by  the  end  of  the  fifth  year. — Gain  in  power  of  vol- 
untary attention,  in  picking  out  essentials  from  a  heard  or  read 
story  or  topic,  and  in  reciting  coherently.  Ability  to  use  the  dic- 
tionary, but,  better  yet,  "a  dictionary  conscience."  Knowledge 
of  the  following  mechanics  in  addition  to  those  demanded  in  lower 
grades  (see  same):  A.  Punctuation-marks  necessary  in:  (1)  divided 
as  well  as  undivided  quotations;  (2)  using  the  noun  of  direct  address; 
(3)  at  least  two  forms  of  letter  writing — business,  and  social.  B. 
Mastery  of  spelling  and  use  of:  (1)  All  kinds  of  genitives  (nouns  and 
pronouns);  (2)  simple  plurals  of  several  classes  of  nouns,  such  as 
(a)  those  ending  in  y,  (b)  in  f  or  fe,  (c)  in  o,  etc.;  (3)  past  tense  of 
common  irregular  verbs.     Correct  spelling  of  about  two-thirds  of 

*  Journal  of  Experimental  Pedagogy,  Vol.  I.     London,  1911-12. 


42  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

all  words  needed  for  written  work,  and  ability  to  find  others  in  the 
dictionary.  Tests  show  that  pupils  can  easily  spell  correctly  about 
1500  words,  though  these  may  not  be  the  same  words  for  all  pupils. 
The  "100  demons"  of  the  South  Dakota  Investigation  might  well 
be  conquered  in  fifth  grade.     (See  page  261  for  list.) 

Grade  VI. 

(See  suggestions  for  all  grades  below  this.) 

Listening. — Since  organization  (including  outlining  and  para- 
graphing correctly)  is  the  point  of  emphasis  in  sixth  grade,  the 
"listening"  should  be  directed  to  the  recognition  of  main  points 
and  to  "turns"  in  the  thought.  Sometimes,  as  the  teacher  reads 
or  tells  a  story,  he  may  ask  that  pupils  name  the  ideas  recognized 
as  emphatic.  Or,  he  may  ask  for  a  show  of  hands  whenever  pupils 
feel  that  a  change  in  thought  has  occurred.  Their  judgment  in 
both  cases  may  be  checked  by  the  author's  paragraphing,  the  chil- 
dren always  first  giving  their  reasons  for  feeling  that  a  new-  para- 
graph was  beginning,  or  that  new  ideas  were  discussed. 

The  teacher  must  take  pains  to  read  only  the  best  of  literature, 
since  it  is  regrettable  but  true  that  many  writers  of  pleasing  maga- 
zine stories  are  careless  about  paragraphing,  and  the  earlier  school- 
readers  are  notably  badly  paragraphed,  since  the  makers  seemed  to 
feel  that  children  should  see  only  short  paragraphs  regardless  of 
the  meaning  of  "paragraph";  or  else  planned  to  make  paragraphs 
of  equal  length,  so  that  the  teacher  need  not  worry  about  any  un- 
fairness to  different  pupils  when  each  in  turn  read  a  paragraph. 
(Good  modern  readers  have  improved  on  this.)  Later,  when  pupils 
have  secured  a  relatively  fixed  standard,  poorly  paragraphed  material 
may  occasionally  be  given  to  pupils  to  criticise  adversely.  Or, 
hektographed  material  containing  prose  or  poetry  without  inden- 
tion may  be  given  to  pupils.  This  material  should  clearly  fall  into 
large  divisions;  complex  organization  is  beyond  these  children. 
Pupils  should  study  the  material,  give  a  title  to  the  whole,  and  a 
subtitle  to  each  thought  division,  indicating  thus,  If,  where  para- 
graphs thus  chosen  should  begin.  Results  should  be  checked  by 
comparison  of  pupils'  work  with  the  author's;  the  author  may  not 
have  made  the  only  grouping,  hence  all  sensible  work  should  be 
approved. 

Pupils  should  be  gathering  ideas  by  means  of  the  eye  as  well  as 
the  ear,  and  in  all  lessons  should  be  "listening  to"  or  "feeling"  the 
paragraph  and  section  divisions  of  a  topic.  By  naming  each  para- 
graph in  a  short  story,  by  naming  stories,  naming  paragraphs,  or 
sections  in  the  geography,  history,  and  reading  lessons,  and  out- 


Language. — Grade  VI. — Listening.  43 

lining  the  same,  and  by  discriminating  points  made  and  selecting 
those  desired  in  reference  reading,  pupils  will  be  learning  the  lesson 
of  the  grade — organization. 

Sixth-grade  pupils  are  alive  to  speech  rhythms,  and  enjoy  learn- 
ing bits  of  foreign  languages.  If  encouraged,  they  will  gather  from 
public  speakers,  from  visitors  or  helpers  in  the  home,  from  the 
German  shoemaker,  from  the  Greek  confectioner,  the  Italian  fruit 
vendor,  or  the  Chinese  laundryman,  bits  of  foreign  speech  that  will 
vitalize  all  language  study.  The  teacher  who  can  wisely  encourage 
this,  even  adding  from  his  own  store  of  information  some  Latin  or 
other  ancient  language,  and  possibly  some  modern  language,  will 
lay  a  strong  foundation  fondness  for  the  study  of  language.  Pupils 
are  interested  in  the  history  of  our  language,  and  listen  with  unbat- 
ing  interest  to  old  English  ballads  and  to  tales  from  Chaucer, 
though  the  odd  spellings  prevent  these  from  being  good  reading 
material  at  this  age. 

Besides  ballads  and  the  "Canterbury  Tales,"  pupils  enjoy,  in 
poetical  form,  translations  of  the  "Iliad,"  of  the  "Odyssey,"  and  of 
"William  Tell."  They  like  some  of  Macaulay's  "Lays  of  Ancient 
Rome,"  and  greatly  enjoy  stories  of  foreign  lands  and  peoples,  as 
well  as  of  boys  and  girls  away  from  home,  especially  at  some  acad- 
emy or  college.  "Hans  Brinker,  or  the  Silver  Skates,"  "Arthur 
Bonnicastle,"  "Tom  Brown's  School  Days,"  "Little  Men,"  are 
books  loved  by  sixth-grade  boys.  They  also  like  "The  Gold  Bug," 
"Treasure  Island,"  and  other  books  named  for  fifth-graders. 

This  is  a  good  grade  in  which  to  begin  putting  on  the  blackboard 
weekly  or  semi-weekly  quotations  that  fit  the  season;  the  daily 
work;  some  disciplinary  situation;  or,  occasionally,  a  clean,  clever 
joke.  The  teacher  should  watch  their  effect  on  the  children,  and 
if  they  seem  to  appeal,  suggest  that  the  children  hunt  quotations 
they  would  like  to  have  used;  later,  the  school  may  elect  a  quotation 
committee,  with  the  teacher  as  critic  or  censor,  to  find  and  write  the 
quotations  for  a  month.  Incidentally,  if  pupils  keep  quotation- 
books  their  vocabularies,  spelling,  and  penmanship,  will  be  benefited. 

Talking. — In  recitations,  in  reading,  in  dramatizing,  in  telling  a 
story  or  incident,  in  talking  upon  a  topic,  sixth-grade  pupils  must 
be  encouraged  to  go  a  step  beyond  their  earlier  attainments.  They 
must,  of  course,  have  something  to  say,  hence  must  continue  to  (1) 
select  a  topic  about  which  they  know  something;  (2)  narrow  to  a 
point  that  can  be  given  in  the  allotted  time  (or  space,  if  writing) ; 

(3)  see  that  the  point  selected  will  be  entertaining  or  instructive; 

(4)  tell  it  so  that  hearers  will  be  interested.  In  the  lower  grades, 
no  more  needed  to  be  said,  for,  to  be  interesting,  the  short  talk 


44  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

needed  little  more  than  the  first  step  in  the  process,  namely,  catch 
the  listener's  attention.  As  the  topical  recitations  or  stories  or  talks 
grow  longer,  pupils  must  be  given  the  second  step,  which  is,  hold 
the  listener's  attention.  To  hold  the  attention  of  one's  audience 
the  speaker  must  have  his  talk  well  organized.  There  must  be 
evident  unity  of  purpose  arid  a  consistency  of  development.  After 
the  essential  point  is  selected,  the  subordinate  ideas  which  aid  the 
effective  development  of  the  topic  must  be  well  grouped.  In  any 
case,  the  child  must  learn  not  to  "jump  about,"  touching  first  one 
idea  and  then  another,  then  back  to  the  first,  etc.  Sixth-grade 
children  enjoy  hearing  Riley's  "The  Bear  Story,  that  Alex  'ist 
Made  Up  His  Own  Self,"  evidently  told  by  a  child  of  four  to  six 
years  of  age,  as  an  illustration  of  the  inconsistency  and  lack  of  unity 
and  organization  which  sixth  graders  are  working  to  overcome. 
This  second  motive  lasts  well  into,  if  not  through,  the  seventh 
grade,  so  the  teacher  can  afford  to  spend  plenty  of  time  upon  it, 
securing  natural  and  not  forced  growth. 

"Language  work  carries  a  magician's  wand  of  three-fold  power: 
it  gives  the  child  firm  foothold  from  which  he  may  take  his  next 
step  upward;  it  throws  the  light  of  self-knowledge  among  the 
shadows  of  that  chaotic  self  whence  his  personality  struggles  to 
emerge;  it  finds  for  him  a  voice  which  hastens  his  social  birth,  and 
sets  him  with  his  fellows  and  of  them,  not  merely  among  them. 

"At  almost  any  point  in  his  development  his  power  may  be 
stunted  by  a  growing  disproportion  between  his  experience  and  his 
expression.  Crudity  of  expression  on  one  plane  becomes  crudity 
of  thought  on  the  next  higher;  one  can  think  and  feel  somewhat  in 
advance  of  his  power  of  expression,  but  that  distance  is  limited. 
Inadequate  language  development  in  early  years  thus  works  in- 
calculable harm  to  later  thought,  but  so  subtly  that  it  is  often  im- 
possible to  sift  the  induced  from  the  native  barrenness  of  later 
thought.  Nor  does  the  blighting  effect  of  cramped  expression 
desolate  the  narrow  field  of  thought  alone;  delicate  perceptions  die 
away,  fragile  aspirations  droop,  yearnings  toward  the  high  fade  to 
dull  commonplace,  for  lack  of  developing  expression.  Let  the 
child  but  learn  the  lineaments  of  his  thought  well  enough  to  chisel 
out  its  likeness  in  words  and  he  will  straighten  many  a  twist;  let 
him  learn  the  soul  of  his  feeling  well  enough  to  breathe  its  life  into 
words  and  he  will  strangle  much  that  is  ignoble  and  extravagant. 

"The  fullest  worth  of  the  individual  comes  through  his  touch 
with  others;  yet  sympathies,  faiths,  keep  silence  within  him  if  there 
is  fear  of  distortion  by  a  garb  of  unaccustomed  words.  Anything 
that  will  uncover  these  hidden  values  is  of  great  worth;  and  the 


Language. — Grade  VI. — Talking.  45 

power  to  clothe  the  inner  reality  in  words  which  shall  truly  reveal 
the  individual,  sets  free  his  social  energy  and  gives  him  a  deserved 
rank  among  his  fellows."*  » 

Language  is  the  right,  then,  of  every  individual,  a  right  so  im- 
portunate that  not  one  teacher  can  afford  to  let  an  opportunity 
for  language  training  slip  by.  Teachers  who  use  choice  and  cour- 
teous English  in  the  daily  work  of  the  schoolroom  employ  one  of 
the  most  effective  means  of  securing  pleasing  speech  from  their 
pupils,  and,  incidentally,  they  secure  deference  from  their  pupils 
and  acquire  a  greater  social  charm. 

That  pupils  of  all  grades  are  word-poor  is  a  well-known  fact; 
but  that  youth  is  the  time  to  acquire  a  rich  vocabulary  few  teachers 
realize  sufficiently  to  make  vocabulary  work  a  definite  phase  of  the 
language  work  of  every  grade.  It  should  be  so  made.  "Watch 
every  opportunity  to  enrich  the  child's  store  of  forcible  words. 
Whole  lessons  need  to  be  devoted  entirely  to  word  gathering. 
Once  get  the  children  eager  to  express  a  definite  idea  and  they  very 
rapidly  absorb  new  words  which  will  aid  them  therein.  In  general 
the  best  source  for  new  words  is  the  class.  Whenever  a  need  for 
words  is  felt,  make  a  class  list;  it  is  astonishing  how  rich  is  the 
combined  vocabulary  of  a  class  whose  individual  members  are 
word-poor.  The  teacher  may  add  such  as  he  desires  them  to  add 
to  their  stock;  but  they  take  from  each  other  most  readily.  It  is 
valuable  to  read  some  bit  of  literature  gemmed  with  the  sort  of 
words  they  will  need,  just  before  the  task  in  composition  is  set 
them.  The  main  thing  is  to  give  pupils  their  new  words  in  response 
to  a  definite  need.  Take  a  good  copy  of  Rosa  Bonheur's  Lion,  and 
try  to  get  words  describing  the  expression;  or  mount  a  milkweed- 
stalk  and  set  the  children  trying  to  picture  it  in  words;  examine  a 
winged  Mercury,  and  the  children's  vocabulary  will  multiply,  in 
certain  directions,  wonderfully;  compete  to  see  who  can,  with  a 
limited  number  of  words,  make  a  fire  brightest,  a  sunset  most  deli- 
cate, a  man  angriest,  a  curve  most  graceful,  a  boy  most  courageous, 
a  mountain  ruggedest,  and  so  on.  This  sort  of  work  should  not  be 
too  frequent,  but  it  is  most  valuable  in  multiplying  new  words. 
The  surroundings  and  interest  of  any  class  will  furnish  a  thought- 
ful teacher  with  innumerable  openings  for  such  exercises."* 

Teaching  pupils  how  to  study  different  lessons  is  one  of  the  main 
tasks  of  the  sixth-grade  teacher,  and  the  work  there  done  in  getting 
pupils  to  recognize  main  points,  to  unite  and  name  related  facts, 
and  to  supplement  the  thought,  will  have  a  very  direct  and  stimu- 

*  Winona  Normal  Bulletin,  January,  1910,  (out  of  print). 


46  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

lating  effect  upon  the  language  work,  both  oral  and  written,  of  the 
grade. 

Earlier  grades  give  the  values  of  memorizing  poems  and  quo- 
tations. Dramatization  in  which  pupils  use  an  author's  exact 
words  is  valuable  for  training  in  vocabulary  and  conventional  sen- 
tence structure;  but  the  other  form  of  dramatization,  that  in  which 
pupils  give  the  author's  thought  but  express  in  their  own  words 
what  they  would  feel  under  the  same  circumstances,  gives  better 
training  in  self-expression,  and  should  be  gradually  used  more  and 
more  in  advancing  grades. 

Correction  of  errors,  and  enunciation  drills,  must  be  continued. 

Writing. — The  development  of  the  paragraph  sense  is  the  new 
work  of  this  grade,  as  has  been  given  under  the  two  headings  above. 
The  teacher  needs  to  make  sure  that  "to  the  child  paragraphing  is 
a  matter  of  real  thought  division,  not  of  external  form.  The  teacher 
must  constantly  guard  against  two  things:  he  must  not  try  to  in- 
duce a  complexity  of  organization  natural  to  him  but  beyond  the 
power  of  the  child;  and  he  must  not  insist  on  his  own  organization, 
even  on  large  lines.  The  child  caji  think  only  in  large  divisions; 
if  the  teacher  tries  to  refine  the  child's  paragraphing  he  will  feel 
each  separate  thought  or  fact  by  itself,  which  is  the  very  reverse 
of  the  organization  the  teacher  seeks  to  induce.  The  child  must  be 
permitted  to  reflect  his  own  divisions  in  order  that  his  own  power 
to  organize  may  grow.  He  will  not  gain  individual  power  by  being 
told  where  to  indent.  Class  discussion  over  paragraphing  is  very 
valuable,  as  the  children's  minds  are  nearly  on  the  same  plane  and 
they  can  therefore  give  and  take  organization  from  one  another  ef- 
fectively. When  the  children  do  actually  organize  their  material  in 
large  divisions,  it  will  yet  be  necessary  to  drill  them  on  indention  to 
reflect  the  same.  The  important  thing  in  this  drill,  as  in  all  formal 
work,  is  that  the  indention  be  kept  before  them  always  as  a  sign  of 
a  thing  that  actually  exists  in  their  own  minds,  not  as  a  thing  of 
value  in  itself.  For  example,  let  a  child  who  has  written  on  'The 
Adventures  of  One  Day,'  hold  his  paper  before  the  class  for  inspec- 
tion, with  the  question:  'How  many  adventures?'  If  the  reading 
of  the  story  does  not  corroborate  the  decision  the  class  made  from 
his  indentions,  he  must  remodel  his  work.  Or  let  a  child  place  his 
list  of  large  topics  on  the  board,  and  challenge  others  to  find  any 
topic  in  his  paper  by  inspection.  In  more  advanced  work  let  him 
read  a  sentence  and  challenge  others  to  point  to  its  place  by  noting 
under  what  topic  it  should  occur.  If  the  one  challenged  misplaced 
it,  he  loses;  but  if  he  can  prove  that  it  should  have  been  under  the 
topic  he  chose,  the  reader  loses.  Children  preparing  work  with 
such  a  game  in  view  organize  their  work  with  ea^er  care.     Numer- 


Language. — Grade  VI. — Writing.  47 

ous  variations  of  such  exercises  will  occur  to  any  teacher  working 
along  thought  lines."* 

"See  that  children  get  the  habit  of  going  over  their  work  care- 
fully, before  handing  it  in,  and  making  any  changes  they  think  will 
improve  it.  Pupils  should  feel  free  at  such  times  to  draw  a  line 
through  a  word  and  substitute  a  better  one,  or  make  any  other 
changes  that  they  think  are  for  the  better.  The  wise  teacher  is 
not  distressed  by  changes  of  this  sort  made  upon  the  paper.  By 
degrees,  the  pupils  who  make  them  will  learn  to  anticipate  errors, 
and  choose  in  advance  the  better  word  or  the  better  form  of  sen- 
tence. We  are  not  looking  for  perfect  papers;  we  are  looking  to 
develop  the  power  that  will  later  on  make  them  less  imperfect. 
This  does  not  mean  that  neatness  is  not  to  be  encouraged  and  com- 
mended, or  that  slovenly  work  is  not  to  be  condemned.  It  means 
that  we  must  be  big  enough  not  to  fret  over  little  things  so  long  as 
the  children  are  clearly  on  their  way  to  better  writing.  And  every 
child  is  on  his  way  to  better  writing  who  is  getting  the  habit  of 
scrutinizing  his  composition  and  correcting  and  improving  his 
work  before  the  paper  is  carried  up  to  the  teacher."f 

Letter  writing  must  be  continued,  and  the  business  letters  which 
pupils  can  now  write  asking  for  desired  material  of  firms  who  dis- 
tribute advertising  material  valuable  for  school  use,  will  give  prac- 
tice in  paragraphing  as  well  as  in  letter  forms.  Other  letters,  to 
publishers,  local  senators,  or  authorities  on  special  lines  at  the  State 
University,  for  the  sake  of  settling  some  mooted  question,  will  give 
additional  motives  for  real  letters. 

Dictionary  work  should  be  continued. 

Anecdotes,  personal  experiences,  imaginary  incidents,  current 
events,  and  jokes,  are  all  good  subjects  for  brief  themes.  Interest- 
ing stories  selected  by  the  teacher  may  be  read,  hectographed,  or 
put  upon  the  blackboard,  in  part  only,  pupils  being  asked  to  finish 
the  stories  as  they  conceive  the  end.  This  gives  a  story  an  inter- 
esting beginning  and  "sets  a  pace"  for  pupils  to  follow;  gives  chil- 
dren a  chance  to  exercise  ingenuity  and  yet  keep  a  story  consistent; 
helps  less-capable  pupils  through  hearing  others'  endings  read,  and 
gives  a  motive  for  good  climax  writing. 

Preparation  of  some  form  of  entertainment  of  parents  or  of 
pupils  from  another  grade  will  vitalize  the  composition  work  for 
several  weeks.  The  selection  of  the  theme  to  unify  the  whole,  the 
outlining  of  the  plan,  and  the  distribution  of  separate  parts  to  in- 
dividuals or  to  committees  for  execution,  give  strong  motives  for 


*  Winona  Normal  Bulletin,  January,  1910,  (out  of  print). 
|  Sheridan. 


48  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

organization.  For  example,  near  Christmas  time,  the  pupils  of 
one  sixth  grade  planned  to  entertain  the  pupils  of  other  grades  by 
showing  Christmas  customs  in  other  lands  "in  ye  olden  times." 
German,  French,  Italian,  and  old  English  customs,  were  planned 
for.  Children  sought  reference-books,  and  some  reported  daily  in 
language  hour  until  all  had  enough  information  to  continue  the 
organization  and  distribution  of  parts  to  be  written  and  acted. 
Then  the  children  wrote,  and  tested  the  unity  and  clearness  of 
what  they  wrote  on  the  class  members,  who  put  themselves  into 
the  position  of  the  expected  visitors  and  helpfully  amended  or  ap- 
proved each  writer's  result.* 

Spelling,  penmanship,  and  other  mechanics  of  writing  already 
taught,  must  not  be  permitted  to  deteriorate.  No  work  below  the 
child's  best  ability  should  be  accepted,  but  should  be  rewritten  be- 
fore the  teacher  consents  to  criticize  it.  If  the  "One  Hundred 
Demons"  have  not  been  conquered  in  fifth  grade,  they  should  be 
here.  (See  p.  261).  Pupils  should  be  urged  to  use  the  dictionary 
for  correct  spellings  (p.  98)  of  all  uncertain  words,  and  should  be 
encouraged  to  conquer  as  many  of  the  words  needing  to  be  "looked 
up,"  as  possible,  so  as  to  raise  their  average  above  the  minimum 
standard  indicated-  Note  books  containing  words  looked  up  (with 
date  of  need)  may  be  kept  by  individuals.  The  teacher  should  look 
these  over  frequently,  to  be  sure  the  child  has  correctly  copied  the 
right  spelling,  or  he  may  be  spending  valuable  time  to  no  avail  on 
wrong  forms.  These  lists  should  be  studied,  and,  at  the  spelling- 
period,  children  of  similar  spelling  efficiency  may  be  paired,  each 
pronouncing,  in  a  low  tone,  to  the  other,  his  individual  list  for 
writing.  To  check  one's  own  growth  in  power  is  a  great  incentive. 
At  other  times  the  teacher  may  take  all  individual  lists,  select  the 
most  "popular"  twenty-five  words,  and  help  pupils  in  studying  them 
by  noting  hard  places,  by  comparing  them  with  others  of  similar 
derivation,  and  by  applying  a  few  known  rules  to  the  spelling  of 
their  derivatives.  He  may  then  test  the  entire  school  on  these 
twenty-five  words  and  their  derivatives.  (Other  devices  will  be 
found  by  resourceful  teachers.) 

Penmanship  should  show,  in  its  result,  "flow,"  or  easy  control 
of  the  hand,  with  form,  slant,  and  spacing  of  letters,  up  to  the 
standard  selected  by  the  school.  If  no  special  system  of  penman- 
ship is  employed,  the  teacher  may  use  any  good  scale  (see  p.  259) 
and  expect  that  pupils  could  easily  write  from  60  to  75  letters  per 
minute  of  the  quality  chosen. 


*  Miss  Etta  Howell,  teacher. 


Language. — Grade  VI. — What  to  Expect.  49 

What  may  be  expected  of  sixth-grade  pupils. — Ability  to  get  the 
number  of  points  made,  and,  if  the  production  is  not  too  long,  the 
gist  of  each  main  point,  in  whatever  sort  of  talk  is  heard  or  in  mate- 
rial read.  Ability  to  talk  to  a  point  with  better  organization  than 
in  any  preceding  grade,  but  with  all  other  desired  qualities  still 
present.  (See  lower  grades  for  posture,  spontaneity,  etc.)  Ability 
to  write  at  least  two  paragraphs  on  one  theme,  with  a  distinct  feel- 
ing of  the  paragraph  idea. 

Sentences  will  still  be  reasonably  short,  though  many  pupils 
may  begin  to  construct  complex  sentences,  a  result  to  be  encouraged 
if  the  child  does  not  get  "lost"  in  his  long  sentences.  He  must  be 
made  to  feel  the  need  of  saying  something  about  the  subject  of  his 
sentence,  or  all  earlier  work  will  quickly  be  undone. 

Letters,  written  without  any  help  from  the  teacher,  should  show  a 
mastery  of  the  correct  letter-form  and  reasonably  interesting  con- 
tent; be  grammatical  in  construction;  be  well  organized,  spelled  cor- 
rectly, and  written  in  a  smooth,  controlled  hand,  with  slant,  spac- 
ing, and  forms  of  letters,  up  to  the  standard  for  sixth  grade. 

Each  pupil  should  spell  without  second  thought  at  least  75% 
of  all  needed  words,  and  should  know  how  to  use  the  dictionary 
rapidly  for  finding  all  others  of  which  he  isn't  certain. 

Other  mechanics  required  and  not  already  named  are  few.  The 
teacher  should  carefully  list  all  given  in  lower  grades  and  note  any 
failures  of  sixth-grade  pupils  to  meet  the  standards.  Drills  must 
be  given  wherever  necessary,  but,  in  general,  the  need  of  mechanics 
should  be  motivated  by  the  desire  for  clearness  and  ease  of  reading 
by  the  one  who  is  to  read  the  manuscript.  Probably  the  use  of 
the  comma  before  "but,"  or  in  a  series  of  words  or  phrases,  will  be 
all  the  additional  punctuation  needed. 

Grade  VII. 

In  no  grade  below  the  eighth  is  the  guiding  hand  of  the  teacher 
more  needed  than  here.  Greater  individual  differences  exist  than 
ever  before,  because  pupils  are  approaching  adolescence  and  are  in 
many  different  stages  of  development.  Some  are  still  children; 
others  feel  awkward  because  of  rapid  physical  development;  a  few 
retarded  pupils  seem  already  too  mature  for  the  necessary  school- 
work  of  the  grade;  all  are  more  or  less  self-conscious,  often  express- 
ing their  real  feelings  by  exactly  opposite  conduct.  Boys  who 
really  pity  an  injured  animal  fear  that  they  will  be  ridiculed  for 
soft-heartedness,  and  so  kick  the  wounded  creature  out  of  the  way. 
Girls,  also,  are  quite  apt  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  conventional  be- 
havior and  experiment  with  extremes,  laughing  and  talking  bois- 


50  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

terously  at  one  time,  and  acting  so  "shy"  as  scarcely  to  be  heard 
in  class  at  others.  When  pupils  do  express  themselves,  they  are 
inclined  to  do  so  extravagantly,  and  even  to  voice  extravagant 
judgments.  "The  meanest  boy  in  school,"  "The  most  beautiful 
hat  in  the  world,"  "The  nicest,  cutest,  cunningest"  something, 
"The  most  awful,  terrible"  something  else,  etc.  With  this  expan- 
sion of  Self,  children  who  are  not  carefully  guided  are  apt  to  be- 
come opinionated,  intolerant  of  others'  acts,  and  conceited  over 
their  own  powers  of  execution.  All  these  feelings  and.  actions  will 
definitely  affect  the  language  work,  and  the  teacher  of  seventh-  (as 
well  as  of  the  eighth-)  grade  pupils  may  well  pray  for  daily  wisdom 
to  guide  aright  the  thoughts,  feelings,  and  actions  of  his  pupils. 

Listening. — The  literature  selected  must  meet  such  varying 
needs  as  to  make  any  short  list  very  misleading.  As,  in  the  lower 
grades,  the  teacher's  cup  of  stories  needed  to  be  running  over,  so, 
in  upper  grades,  teachers  must  have  at  their  mental  call  books  or 
stories  to  meet  every  individual  case. 

Stories  of  how  timid  women  braved  dangers  under  the  stress  of 
necessity,  and  of  how  adventurers,  explorers,  and  others,  individu- 
ally conquered  physical  and  social  conditions,  are  all  forms  which 
appeal  to  pupils'  ambitions.  Care  must  be  taken  that  pupils  do 
not  become  enamored  of  books  which  represent  young  boys  and 
girls  as  doing  what  no  adults  have  succeeded  in  doing.  Stories  of 
Sibley,  Radisson,  and  others,  help  children  to  see  that  victory  is 
the  result  of  effort,  not  of  "luck."  "Treasure  Island"  may  now 
be  read  in  class;  and  other  books  by  Stevenson,  as  well  as  some  by 
Cooper  and  by  Scott,  can  be  read  outside  of  school  and  reported 
on  in  class.  Fiction  and  fun  can  be  had  in  plenty,  but  the  teacher 
must  be  sure  that  the  pupils  are  getting  no  warped  notions  of  how 
to  succeed  in  life.  Warner's  "How  I  Killed  a  Bear,"  and  "Camp- 
ing Out,"  as  well  as  Irving's  "Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,"  are  genu- 
inely funny  to  seventh-grade  pupils.  "Rip  Van  Winkle,"  "Miles 
Standish,"  and  "Evangeline,"  appeal  to  different  personalities, 
while  some  of  Lamb's  "Tales  from  Shakespeare,"  and  Scott's 
"Marmion"  and  "The  Lady  of  the  Lake,"  find  sympathetic  listeners. 

Note:  See  the  Minnesota  Library  List  for  many  other  books  suited  to  sixth, 
seventh,  and  eighth  grades,  since  the  seventh-grade  teacher  must  know  all,  if  he 
would  guide  the  individual  reading  of  thirty  or  more  pupils  who  either  crave,  or 
ought  to  have,  certain  types  of  reading  at  different  times.  He  should  also  be 
familiar  with  the  books  in  various  professions  or  vocations,  so  that  he  may  assist 
pupils,  soon  to  leave  school,  to  choose  their  work  wisely.  This  is,  however,  in 
larger  measure,  the  task  of  the  eighth-grade  teacher. 

Pupils  must  be  encouraged  to  share  their  outside-of-school  read- 
ing, and  this  can  only  be  done  if  the  class  members  are  good  listen- 


Language. — Grade  VII. — Talking.  51 

ers.  Knowing  what  each  reader  is  to  give,  the  teacher  may  set  a 
"listening"  problem  for  each  situation;  or  he  may  encourage  the 
reader  to  do  so,  himself  telling  the  listeners  what  to  look  for,  or  on 
what  he  would  like  an  opinion  or  help. 

Before  pupils  write  on  a  given  topic,  the  teacher  may  well  read 
quotations  upon  the  same  subject  from  many  sources,  leaving  pupils 
free  to  use  what  their  ears  were  attuned  to  gather  of  choice  vocabu- 
lary or  of  forceful  sentence  structure.  The  reading  of  riddles, 
jokes,  and  limericks,  (dropped  into  a  box,)  may  well  occupy  a  short 
period  every  week  or  two.  These  should  be  signed,  so  that  the 
teacher,  who  must  read  every  one,  may  privately  help  pupils  whose 
contributions  are  rejected.  If  too  carelessly  written  to  be  easily 
read  at  sight,  they  may  be  corrected  and  put  into  the  box  for  the 
next  week;  or,  if  the  fun  was  not  in  good  taste,  the  teacher  must, 
after  pointing  this  out,  quietly  cultivate  the  child's  taste,  giving 
him  books  full  of  wholesome  humor  and  urging  that  he  make  another 
contribution.  "Alice  in  Wonderland"  often  appeals  to  upper-grade 
pupils  more  than  it  does  to  lower,  and,  even  though  the  explaining 
of  a  joke  may  kill  the  fun  for  the  one  who  sees  it,  many  a  less-keen 
child  will  grow  keener  if  the  reason  for  the  laughter  at  a  joke  is 
explained.  Through  puns,  riddles,  and  rebuses,  pupils  learn  the 
double  meanings  of  a  great  many  words,  and  become  more  dis- 
criminating in  speech  and  writing. 

As  in  lower  grades,  the  recitation  and  all  forms  of  entertainment 
heard  should  be  listened  to  attentively  and  checked  by  criticism 
(favorable  and  adverse),  with  reasons  for  the  judgment  offered. 
It  is  not  enough  that  one  pupil  should  say  of  another's  recitation, 
"It  was  good";  he  must  add,  "Because  I  could  hear  every  word"; 
"Because  he  said  he  would  make  three  points,  and  he  did";  "Be- 
cause he  used  just  the  right  words  to  make  us  see  the  picture;  I 
especially  liked  the  words,  'spreading  branches,'  because  it  made 
me  think  of  a  big  or  an  old  tree";  or  any  similar  and  true  criticism. 

Talking. — Unless  pupils  have  been  brought  up  to  think  over 
what  they  are  to  say  before  they  speak, — that  is,  roughly  to  organize 
their  talks, — and  then  to  hold  to  a  point  as  they  talk  to  an  audi- 
ence, and  do  their  best  to  catch  and  to  hold  the  attention  of  that 
audience,  the  teacher  will  need  to  go  back  far  enough  to  lay  just 
such  a  foundation.  (Read  work  indicated  for  at  least  grades  IV 
to  VI;  preferably  for  all  grades.)  If  the  preceding  work  has  been 
well  done,  the  seventh  year  may  profitably  be  spent  in  securing 
greater  facility  in  all  lines,  in  polishing  talks  more,  and  especially 
in  refining  the  organization  and  the  telling  of  a  story  so  as  to  hold 
the  audience.     More  than  before,  each  child  should  have  some- 


52  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

thing  individual  to  tell — a  new  (actual  or  imaginary)  experience, 
joke,  or  incident;  a  story  not  heard  by  the  class  before;  a  poem 
never  before  given  in  the  school;  or  a  cutting  from  a  recent  gift- 
book  not  known  to  other  pupils.  The  teacher  needs  a  fund  of 
material  on  which  to  draw,  and  the  inexperienced  teacher  should 
at  once  begin  a  card-catalogue  or  a  note-book  of  sources  of  materials 
suited  to  children  of  this  age;  within  three  years  he  will  have  a 
rich  collection  and  an  entirely  new  set  of  pupils  to  use  it. 

The  teacher's  problem  is  to  make  everybody  talk  by  giving  each 
something  worth  while  to  say,  and  by  making  the  situation  such 
that  the  child  feels  it  is  worth  while  to  say  this  something  in  the 
very  best  way  he  can. 

Criticism  should  be  only  what  will  definitely  help  the  child. 
Mere  faultfinding  will  kill  spontaneity;  however,  more  people  are, 
like  Ben  in  "Jean  Mitchell's  School,"  eager  for  adverse  criticism 
than  we  suspect,  and  no  teacher  may  salve  his  conscience  by  feel- 
ing that  he  is  kind  to  the  pupil  when  he  withholds  necessary  criti- 
cism for  which  the  child  is  ready. 

Games  and  drills  to  correct  errors  of  grammar,  pronunciation, 
and  enunciation,  are  as  effective  here  as  in  lower  grades,  if  selected 
to  suit  the  pupils. 

Reciting  from  memory  a  few  fine  models  of  English  will  do  much 
to  improve  both  oral  and  written  composition.  Lincoln's  Gettys- 
burg Address  is  one  fine  model,  and  Mary  S.  R.  Andrews's  "The 
Perfect  Tribute,"  read  to  the  pupils,  helps  them  to  see  that  clear 
and  direct  speech  in  simple  words,  with  a  message  behind  those 
words,  becomes  more  effective  than  even  Edward  Everett's  pol- 
ished phrases.  It  helps  each  pupil  to  feel  that  he  can  be  himself; 
that  if  long  words,  discriminatingly  selected,  are  to  his  taste,  he 
should  use  them;  if  not,  he  may  study  to  be  concise  and  clear  with 
the  best-chosen  short  words  that  he  can  find.  Both  sorts  of  talk- 
ing and  of  writing  are  needed  in  the  world. 

Writing. — The  written  work  demanded  by  all  lessons  in  seventh 
and  eighth  grades  gives  teachers  ample  opportunity  to  check  stu- 
dents on  spelling,  penmanship,  paragraphing,  punctuation,  and 
sentence-structure  required  to  date,  and  to  see  that  pupils  hold 
themselves  responsible  for  using  all  that  they  have  learned.  It  is 
important  enough  to  repeat:  No  work  below  the  child's  best  ability 
should  be  accepted;  slovenly  work  should  be  redone;  if  he  is  pushed 
in  some  lines,  he  would  better  be  entirely  excused  from  others  than 
permitted  to  do  careless  work  and  have  that  accepted. 

In  attacking  the  problem  of  how  to  study,— that  is,  how  to  re- 
solve a  situation  without  waste  of  time  or  energy, — pupils  continue 


Language. — Grade  VII. — Writing.  53 

the  work  of  organizing  begun  in  sixth  grade,  and  learn  in  addition 
how  to  check  results,  how  to  solve  the  problem  in  a  new  way,  and 
how  to  apply  old  knowledge  to  new  situations.  Much  of  the  his- 
tory work  may  be  conducted  through  what  is  called  the  "problem" 
method;  the  industrial  and  geography  work  are  full  of  "projects"; 
arithmetic  processes  grow  out  of  life  situations  and  incite  children 
to  ingenuity  and  logical  procedure  in  their  execution;  and  all 
lessons  give  opportunity  for  "topical  recitations,"  many  of  which 
need  to  be  reduced  to  writing  for  use  in  note-books,  for  reviews, 
or  for  other  purposes.  Good  paragraphing,  outlining,  and  other 
means  of  keeping  pupils  to  the  point,  thus  receive  necessary 
drill. 

In  the  upper  grades,  written  and  oral  language  are  more  nearly 
alike  than  they  have  been  before  or  are  likely  to  be  in  adult  life, 
except  in  the  case  of  real  authors,  for,  during  the  adolescent  age, 
children  often  confide  to  a  diary  or  write  to  a  confidential  friend 
what  they  feel  could  never  be  told  face  to  face — emotions,  ambi- 
tions, self-depreciation  or  conceit,  poetical  effusions,  admirations, 
and  the  "hopes  and  fears  of  all  the  years"  to  come.  As  said  above, 
children  begin  to  feel  themselves  different  from  others,  so  that  less 
class-work  and  more  individual  criticism  become  necessary  in  up- 
per-grade language.  Considerable  class-work  is,  however,  possible, 
when  wisely  guided.  (See  pp.  252-258  for  some  suggestions.)  Chil- 
dren seek  great  variety  in  expression,  and  are  often  crude  or  ex- 
travagant, (note  "freeze  your  young  blood,"  on  p.  257;)  but  tactful 
criticism  (or  at  times  the  ignoring)  of  children's  original  work  will 
lead  to  later  self  criticism  and  correction  of  crudities  and  absurd 
exaggerations. 

Children  write  for  some  audience,  and  so  should  still  wish  to 
interest  that  audience  and  to  hold  the  attention.  The  means  of 
learning  to  do  so  can  become  a  class  exercise,  though  the  final  com- 
positions may  be  written  for  the  teacher  alone  and  not  for  public 
reading.  A  teacher  must  be  fertile  in  finding  motives  or  problems, 
and  will  need  many  books  on  the  subject — not  to  be  followed,  but 
to  give  some  suggestions  of  either  topic  or  method. 

The  different  methods  of  paragraph  development  may,  in  very 
simple  form,  be  utilized  to  satisfy  the  children's  craving  for  variety. 
(See  any  good  rhetoric.)  Casting  some  thought  into  poetical  form 
will  also  meet  the  demand  for  variety,  and  at  the  same  time  help 
vocabulary,  since  rhyme,  rhythm,  and  meter,  all  limit  the  word- 
selection. 

Sentence  structure  must  be  continually  bettered,  and  many 
teachers  find  that  a  little  technical  grammar  on  clauses  and  con- 


54  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

nectives  is  an  aid  here.  At  any  rate,  "definite  work  for  each  variety 
of  the  complex  sentence  must  be  done  in  turn:  clauses  of  time  in- 
troduced through  a  narrative  demanding  them;  clauses  of  place 
through  description  demanding  correlation  in  space;  clauses  of 
cause,  manner,  degree,  concession,  and  so  on,  in  like  manner, 
through  the  pressure  of  a  subject-matter  exacting  them.  Most  of 
the  constructions  of  the  simple  sentence  will  evolve  along  with 
these.  The  pressure  must  never  be  for  a  given  form,  but  always 
for  the  expression  of  an  idea  which  finds  that  form  useful.  Thus 
every  set  of  lessons  will  develop  not  the  one  form  aimed  at,  but  a 
group  of  parallel  constructions  interchangeably  useful  in  express- 
ing the  sort  of  thought-relationship  needed.  The  compound  sen- 
tence should  be  attacked  through  its  adversative  form;  begun  by 
sharpening  the  child's  sense  of  contrast,  and  rousing  his  perception 
of  the  contradictory  elements  in  things  about  him.  The  same 
method  may  be  used  to  exercise  him  in  compounding  sentences 
copulatively,  causally,  and  alternatively. 

"Continual  work  in  sentence  response  should  aim  to  give  the 
child  instinctive  skill  in  adapting  his  form  to  his  thought.  Its  ob- 
ject is  flexibility;  it  seeks  to  render  the  forms  in  his  possession  mo- 
bile and  swiftly  obedient.  A  sentence  containing  two  clearly 
marked  ideas  may  be  selected,  for  instance,  and  the  idea  separated 
by  class-work  and  vivified  and  accurately  defined  by  class  discus- 
sion. Then  the  children  may  be  set  the  task  of  writing  sentences 
in  which  one  idea  seizes  the  mind,  the  other  being  present  but  sub- 
ordinate. If  the  pupils  know  at  once  which  idea  is  the  emphatic 
one,  the  sentence  is  a  success;  otherwise  not.  The  earliest  work 
in  this  line  may  be  marked  by  extravagance,  but  increased  skill 
will  soon  form  a  more  restrained  taste."*  (See  illustrations,  pp. 
255-258.) 

Errors  in  spelling  must  continue  to  be  conquered  as  fast  as  they 
arise.  At  least  four-fifths  of  all  necessary  words  should,  by  this 
grade,  be  "first  nature"  to  the  child,  and  a  ready  use  of  the  dic- 
tionary should  make  the  looking  up  of  the  unusual  words  easy  and 
certain.     (See  sixth-grade  suggestions,  and  pp.  98-104.) 

Penmanship  must  still  receive,  at  definite  times  on  the  weekly, 
if  not  daily,  program,  enough  attention  to  insure  no  loss  of  skill 
already  gained,  and  some  advancement  in  either  form,  speed,  or 
grace,  as  needed  by  individuals.  Legibility  and  beauty  of  form 
(including  slant  and  spacing)  must  not  be  sacrificed  by  too-much- 
required  and  too-hurried  writing.  Either  the  amount  of  writing 
required  must  be  reduced,  or  pupils  must  have  more  practice  in 

*  Winona  Normal  Bulletin,  March,  1907,  (out  of  print). 


Language. — Grade  VII. —  What  to  Expect.  55 

securing  speed.  Probably  75  to  85  letters  a  minute  of  the  desired 
standard  selected  would  fit  the  pupils'  needs. 

What  to  expect  of  seventh-grade  pupils. — Ability  to  gather  from 
listening  (or  reading)  the  main  points  of  a  good  talk,  and  later  from 
memory  to  set  these  points  down  in  outline  form,  with  some  of  the 
subordinate  ideas  properly  located. 

Ability  to  criticise  one's  own  work  because  of  the  possession  of 
definite  standards:  (1)  Do  I  really  say  anything?  (2)  Am  I  clear, 
or  coherent?  (3)  Do  I  make  an  interesting  beginning;  that  is, 
would  people  listen  to  me?  (4)  Do  I  keep  up  the  interest,  or  do  I 
grow  commonplace,  not  holding  my  audience?  If  so,  why  do  I? 
Are  my  ideas  not  clearly  differentiated?  Are  my  sentences  monot- 
onous? If  so,  how  can  I  vary  them?  Haven't  I  chosen  my  words 
consistently?  (5)  (If  written)  Is  my  penmanship  easily  readable? 
(6)  Does  my  paragraphing  show  the  changes  in  ideas  that  I  wish 
to  express?  (7)  Does  my  punctuation  help  the  reader?  (8)  Have 
I  spelled  all  my  words  correctly?  (If  in  any  doubt  the  dictionary 
should  be  used.) 

Ability  to  judge  the  worth  of  another's  work  and  to  offer  help- 
ful criticism  on  at  least  one  point.     (Why  good,  bad,  or  indifferent.) 

Ready  use  of  the  dictionary. 

Penmanship  and  spelling,  of  standards  indicated  above. 

Grade  VIII. 

Teachers  should  read  with  care  the  work  prescribed  for  all  grades 
below  the  eighth,  for  unless  that  has  been  accomplished,  the  teacher 
must  go  back  far  enough  to  meet  the  children's  needs  and  do  that 
work  well,  even  if  it  be  of  only  fourth-grade  standard.  To  attempt 
eighth-grade  work  without  the  sure  foundation  of  what  has  pre- 
ceded is  waste  of  time — time  that  might  better  be  spent  in  doing 
the  work  outlined  in  some  grade  below  so  thoroughly  that  the  next 
teacher  has  a  good  starting-point.  Many  causes  may  operate 
against  eighth-grade  pupils'  being  up  to  grade:  (1)  there  has  been 
no  state  standard  before,  and  pupils  will  vary  according  to  the 
ideals  of  their  teachers;  (2)  many  are  foreigners  and  find  English 
almost  impossible;  (3)  many  have  not  been  guided  through  the 
self-conscious  age  and  find  extra  difficulty  in  beginning  to  be  free 
of  speech  or  pen  in  the  eighth  grade.  Therefore  it  is  that  teachers 
should  be  ready  to  teach  whatever  is  needed,  not  bemoaning  the 
fact  that  the  minimum  standard  set  cannot  now  be  reached,  for 
this  standard  is  set  for  those  who  have  had  all  preceding  work. 
Results  in  life  everywhere  must  be  judged  by  a  double  standard: 
first,  by  a  set  scale;  second,  by  the  causes  which  produced  the  given 


56  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

result.  So  every  language  effort  must  be  doubly  judged;  according 
to  language  standards  the  result  may  be  "poor";  but  judged  by 
previous  training,  mental  ability,  foreign  vocabulary,  self-con- 
sciousness, etc.,  it  may  be  "superior."  No  eighth-grade  teacher 
should  condemn  his  own  results  because  they  do  not  reach  some 
printed  scale  until  he  has  honestly  faced  the  causes  which  pro- 
duced the  result.  If  he  knows  that  he  has  done  his  best  for  each 
individual  in  his  group,  he  has  no  reason  for  anxiety. 

The  only  wholly  new  feature  of  eighth-grade  composition  work 
is  that  of  working  for  the  last  factor  in  the  producing  of  an  inter- 
esting theme — that  is,  securing  reaction  from  the  listeners.  Re- 
peating what  has  been  given  before,  there  are  just  two  things  re- 
quired of  every  good  author,  whether  speaker  or  writer:  (1)  He 
must  have  a  message  worth  giving,  either  for  entertainment  or  in- 
struction; (2)  he  must  tell  it  interestingly.  To  do  this,  (a)  he 
must,  after  having  chosen  a  pleasing  point  to  give,  make  a  good 
beginning  so  as  to  catch  the  attention  of  his  audience;  (b)  he  must 
have  the  organization  so  clear  as  to  be  easily  followed,  so  that  he 
may  hold  his  audience;  and  (c)  he  must  illustrate,  summarize,  ap- 
ply, be  sufficiently  accurate,  show  reserve  power  and  insight,  or  in 
some  other  way  stimulate  the  hearers  to  further  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject, so  that  they  want  to  do  something  about  it — hear  it  again; 
tell  a  similar  anecdote;  examine  the  object;  try  to  make  the  article; 
read  more  about  the  subject;  practice  it  in  daily  life;  go  away  criti- 
cizing the  talk,  agreeing,  disagreeing,  debating  about  it,  etc.;  offer 
service  or  money  if  the  talk  is  in  some  charitable  cause;  cry  or 
laugh;  or  remain  spellbound  by  the  big  thought,  as  the  audience 
did  at  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  address. 

It  is  this  third  point  that  must  be  given  to  eighth-grade  students 
as  a  new  motive  for  "finish"  in  organization,  in  vocabulary,  and  in 
sentence  structure.  It  is  not  a  power  to  be  fully  attained  in  one 
year,  nor  even  in  the  succeeding  four  years  of  high  school.  Many 
speakers  never  acquire  it,  but  we  go  away  from  hearing  such  lec- 
turers unmoved,  turning  to  chat  with  our  companions  about  other 
topics,  the  talk  having  proverbially  "gone  into  one  ear  and  out  of 
the  other."  Though  it  may  take  a  lifetime  to  acquire,  it  is  well 
worth  working  for,  and  eighth-grade  pupils  should  begin  to  look 
for  it  in  all  they  hear,  say,  and  write. 

Listening. — (See  suggestions  for  earlier  grades.)  Pupils  listen 
to  good  literature;  to  one  another's  recitations,  talks,  stories,  etc.; 
to  as  many  outside  speakers  as  possible — ministers,  lecturers, 
demonstrators,  agents,  political  leaders,  vocational  experts,  promi- 
nent citizens,  debaters,  etc.     Through  the  eye,  they  listen  to  all 


Language. — Grade  VIII. — Listening.  57 

forms  of  good  writing  as  found  in  books,  magazines,  and  news- 
papers. The  resourceful  eighth-grade  teacher  will  find  numerous 
fine  men  and  women  in  the  community  who  will  gladly  give  ten 
minute  talks  on  their  different  occupations  and  what  pupils  should 
be  learning  in  preparation  for  each;  why  it  is  good  to  be  a  merchant, 
a  baker,  a  carpenter,  etc.;  or  what  lessons  life  has  taught  that  these 
boys  and  girls  can  learn  now  under  a  teacher's  guidance.  There  is 
no  limit  to  the  field;  but  the  teacher  must  of  course  set  a  limit. 
Talks  must  fit  the  pupils'  needs.  There  must  be  no  more  than  can 
be  well  digested.  The  teacher  must  be  sure  of  what  the  speaker 
will  say,  and  should  therefore  not  invite  people  at  random,  but 
should  at  least  begin  with  people  big  enough  to  understand  the 
need  of  the  talk's  being  a  "model"  of  its  kind,  and  hence  big  enough 
to  let  the  teacher  hear  it  and  suggest  changes  to  make  it  fit  the 
standards  known  to  pupils.  The  teacher  cannot  afford  to  invite  a 
man  who  says  that  he  doesn't  know  what  he  is  to  talk  about,  who 
rambles  on  awhile,  and  then  talks  twice  as  long  as  the  time  allowed. 
He  must  invite  someone  who  is  willing  to  give  thought  to  the 
subject  and  show  plainly  that  he  does  know  what  he  is  to  talk 
about.  "Special  days"  open  the  door  to  talks  on  great  men,  on 
pictures,  on  literature,  on  industries,  on  peace  and  war,  and  our 
country's  soldiers — soldiers  in  the  daily  battle  for  pure  food,  sani- 
tation, and  honest  work,  as  well  as  soldiers  on  our  battle-fields. 

Pupils  should  be  questioned  after  each  talk  on  why  they  liked 
it  as  a  whole,  what  parts  especially  pleased  them,  what  it  made 
them  feel,  what  they  wanted  (or  still  want)  to  do:  Was  it  pleasing 
mainly  because  of  the  thought?  The  expression?  Or  both?  Was 
the  thought  new,  or  was  it  an  old  idea  treated  in  a  new  way?  Was 
it  logically  developed,  easy  to  follow?  Did  the  speaker  make  his 
point?  Did  he  stick  to  his  point?  Did  he  stop  when  he  was 
through?  Was  it  worth  telling?  Did  he  choose  interesting  de- 
tails? Were  they  consistently  subordinated,  or  did  they  detract 
from  the  essentials?  Did  the  expression  fit  the  thought?  Was  the 
vocabulary  well  chosen?  (See  Shryock's  discussion,  in  his  English 
Reader,  of  Webster's  vocabulary.)  What  figures  of  speech  were 
especially  good? 

Stories  of  great  men,  the  growth  of  great  industries,  and  the 
execution  of  great  enterprises,  appeal  to  eighth-grade  pupils. 
About  two  years  ago  one  of  the  popular  magazines  contained  a 
series  of  articles  about  men  who  earn  $100,000  salaries,  each  article 
showing  plainly  how  the  sum  was  truly  earned;  in  July,  1916,  a 
Chicago  Sunday  paper  gave  the  life  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  James  J.  Hill, 
of  St.   Paul,  showing  how  much  both  deserved  the  success  they 


58  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

attained.  Such  articles  are  worth  while  for  children  to  hear  and 
read,  to  counterbalance  a  false  notion  that  success  is  "just  luck," 
and  to  teach  that  success  is  the  result  of  hard  work.  When  they 
read  of  how  Franklin  and  Robert  Louis  Stevenson  learned  by 
patient  practice  to  write,  and  how  Stevenson  wrote  and  rewrote 
even  his  later  books  many,  many  times  before  he  let  them  leave 
his  desk,  pupils  more  willingly  work  to  listen,  to  speak,  and  to 
write  satisfactorily.  Selected  "Lives"  from  Plutarch,  Shakes- 
peare's "Julius  Caesar,"  and  certain  books  by  Dickens,  Scott, 
George  Eliot,  Warner,  Hawthorne,  and  Irving  appeal.  If,  for  any 
reason,  pupils  are  not  ready  for  these,  the  teacher  should  study 
lower-grade  lists  and  select  books  that  can  be  "listened  to"  (through 
the  eye)  with  pleasure  enough  to  induce  the  reading  habit.  The 
graver  danger,  however,  is  that  we  let  our  pupils  read  too  easy 
matter  until  they  form  lazy  habits  in  reading  and  in  listening,  de- 
siring just  headlines  or  "movies,"  not  willingly  delving  for  the  gold 
in  real  literature. 

.  Talking. — If  a  member  of  the  class  tells  how  to  make  a  cement- 
walk,  a  boat,  or  a  derrick;  how  to  make  a  Pilgrim  cap  for  the  girls 
to  wear  at  the  Thanksgiving  festival;  or  how  to  prepare  some  con- 
fection to  be  served  to  the  visitors  on  that  day,  the  speaker's  aim 
should  be  to  make  every  one  who  listens  desire  to  make  the  article. 
The  teacher  can  often  foster  the  execution  of  this  desire  by  offer- 
ing cloth  or  patterns  or  recipes  to  be  taken  home;  or  by  putting  the 
talk  just  before  a  manual-training  or  cooking  period,  when  pupils 
may  request  the  privilege  of  making  the  articles;  or  the  talk  can 
come  just  at  school  close  so  that  children  go  home  with  the  desire 
to  try  the  recipe  fresh  in  mind.  One  great  factor  in  the  educative 
process  is  the  testing  of  ideas  and  emotions  by  doing.  Desires  that 
remain  passive  do  not  build  character;  hence  teachers  and  parents 
should  cooperate  wherever  possible,  or  each  must  try  alone  if 
cooperation  isn't  possible,  to  secure  action  as  a  result  of  stirred 
interest.  Wishing  to  make  something,  wishing  to  be  as  kind  or  as 
brave  as  was  the  boy  in  the  story,  never  produced  the  object,  nor 
the  kindness,  nor  the  courage.  Every  incitation  to  action  should 
have  a  planned  outlet,  or  should  carry  with  it  a  challenge  to  the 
child  to  find  a  method  of  application  or  of  execution.  When  the 
habit  of  doing  what  one  knows  he  should  do  is  formed,  the  openings 
for  execution  need  no  longer  be  pointed  out. 

Speaking  and  writing  go  hand  in  hand,  so  that  much  said  under 
one  head  may  be  made  to  fit  with  the  other.  To  avoid  repetition, 
more  which  might  well  be  said  here  will  be  put  under  the  next 
topic. 


Language. — Grade  VIII. — Writing.  59 

Writing. — The  extravagances  in  vocabulary,  in  high-sounding 
sentences,  in  opinions,  so  prominent  in  seventh  grade,  begin  to 
tone  down  as  eighth-grade  pupils  realize  their  approaching  dignity. 
Vocabulary  is  selected  for  better  purposes  than  to  display  individ- 
uality. If  given  good  copy  and  good  methods  of  work,  children 
begin  consciously  to  imitate  different  "styles"  which  they  admire. 
True,  the  dignity  of  dawning  adulthood  is  often  at  variance  with  the 
still-existing  childish  emotions;  so  that  inconsistencies  must  often 
be  ignored  by  the  teacher.  The  youth  fears  the  world's  criticisms, 
yet  at  times  is  daring  and  bold.  With  Longfellow  in  his  "Morituri 
Salutamus,"  the  teacher  needs  to  feel,  even  if  he  doesn't  say: 

How  beautiful  is  youth!  how  bright  it  gleams 
With  its  illusions,  aspirations,  dreams! 
Book  of  Beginnings,  Story  without  End, 
Each  maid  a  heroine,  and  each  man  a  friend! 
Aladdin's  Lamp;  and  Fortunatus'  Purse, 
That  holds  the  treasures  of  the  universe! 
All  possibilities  are  in  its  hands; 
No  danger  daunts  it,  and  no  foe  withstands. 

"Be  bold!  be  bold! 
Be  not  too  bold!     Yet  better  the  excess 
Than  the  defect;  better  the  more  than  less!" 

In  other  words,  the  teacher  must  keep  alive,  or  rekindle,  a  spirit 
of  freedom  in  self  expression.* 

Early  in  the  year,  the  teacher  must  deliberately  work  to  inspire 
confidence  in  pupils,  to  create  an  atmosphere  of  good-feeling,  and 
to  engender  comradeship  between  teacher  and  pupils,  as  a  basis  for 
the  freedom  of  expression  desired.  Of  course,  as  in  other  grades, 
the  subject-matter  must  be  of  interest  to  pupils  and  worth  while 
talking  or  writing  about.  There  are  two  main  types  of  work  pos- 
sible: First,  "Big  units,"  demanding  cooperation  or  team  work,  such 
as  the  writing  up  of  a  school  party,  planning  and  giving  a  program 
for  visitors,  dramatizing  a  book,  or  preparing  and  binding  books 
containing  a  chapter  from  each  child.  For  such  work,  the  following 
topics  have  been  found  especially  good:  World  Builders,  such  as 
Bridge  Builders  and  Miners;  Heroic  Workers — "Life-Saving  Ser- 
vice," "Red-Cross  Work,"  "History  of  Minnesota,"  "The  Lost  Col- 
ony," "First  Aid  to  the  Injured."  (See  pp.  258-261  for  one  illus- 
tration.) The  Second  type  of  work  is  more  individual,  dealing  with 
personal  experiences  in  travel,  camping,  Saturday  work,  vacation 
work,  a  visit  paid,  etc. 

*  To  Miss  E.  Catherine  Burkholder,  whose  work  the  writer  has  had  most  opportunity  to  watch 
during  the  last  few  years,  and  to  her  able  predecessors,  the  writer  is  indebted  for  the  following 
illustrations  and  methods  of  work.  Much  of  what  follows  is  taken  from  Miss  Burkholder's  talks 
to  students. 


60  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Both  types  run  throughout  the  year,  alternating  as  necessary, 
but  the  individual  type  does  and  should  predominate  early  in  the 
year  when  the  teacher  is  quietly  proving  his  trustworthiness  as  a 
recipient  of  oral  or  written  personalities  or  confidences.  The 
teacher  may  to  himself  call  these  lessons  "get  acquainted"  lessons, 
since  he  is,  through  them,  learning  individual  abilities  and  needs. 
"Home  study,"  freely  discussed  in  class,  as  to  sorts,  amount,  con- 
veniences for,  etc.,  makes  a  good  beginning  essay.  This  may  be 
followed  by  "My  study  program,"  in  which  each  child  expresses 
himself  freely  as  he  arranges  his  school  (and  home)  study  hours  to 
secure  the  best  results  for  him.  Children's  opinions  must  be  re- 
spected by  the  teacher,  but  if  poor  judgment  is  shown,  the  teacher 
may  later  guide  the  pupil  in  making  changes  in  his  program. 
"School  Management"  discussed,  and  then  written  about,  may  be 
the  entering  wedge  to  cooperation. — What  makes  good  govern- 
ment? Who  should  be  most  considered,  the  individual  or  the 
group?  What  consideration  is  due  our  neighbors?  How  can  we 
better  the  passing  of  classes?  Cloak-room  order?  Who  should 
assume  the  responsibility  when  the  teacher  is  away  from  the  room? 
and  the  like.  The  teacher  must  avoid  expressing  an  opinion,  must 
encourage  perfect  frankness,  and,  in  the  criticisms  of  the  papers, 
must  make  few  adverse  criticisms,  and  call  no  attention  to  indi- 
vidual opinions,  but  say  (what  is  true):  "I  enjoyed  your  papers 
very  much.  You  seem  to  agree  that  thus  and  so  may  be  done. 
Let  us  try  the  plan."  After  two  or  three  weeks,  the  teacher,  in 
the  meantime  reading  some  autobiographies,  as  of  Franklin  and 
Grant,  may  suggest  that  pupils  write  their  autobiographies.  This 
must  not  be  attempted  until  the  teacher  feels  that  pupils  trust  him 
as  a  sympathetic  reader  and  a  safe  confidant.  If  the  essays  prove 
that  the  children  are  frank,  the  teacher  may  suggest,  "Now  you've 
told  me  about  the  past,  (and  I  found  the  stories  most  interesting,) 
how  would  you  like  to  look  ahead  about  five  years,  when  you  have 
probably  finished  high  school,  and  tell  me  of  yjour  wishes  or  your 
plans?  You  may  call  your  stories,  'My  Wish,'  'The  Future,'  'Look- 
ing Forward,'  or  any  title  that  you  feel  fits  what  you  write."  If 
the  children  feel  free  to  write,  they  will  do  their  best,  and,  through 
these  means,  (and  others  that  ingenious  teachers  will  devise,)  the 
teacher  learns  what  he  so  needs  to  know:  the  children's  home  con- 
ditions, their  ideals,  their  future  hopes,  and,  incidentally,  the  me- 
chanical errors  needing  class  attention.  Since  the  most  of  two 
months  will  have  been  occupied  with  these  "get-acquainted"  les- 
sons, the  nearness  to  October  31  will  make  the  consideration  of  a 
Hallowe'en  party,  or  a  program,  or  a  book  of  Hallowe'en  incidents 


Language. — Grade  VIII. — Writing.  61 

(real  or  imaginary),  or  of  ghost  stories,  a  fine  subject  for  the  first 
cooperative  effort.  Specific  drills  on  needed  mechanics,  followed 
at  once  by  opportunities  to  apply  the  knowledge,  so  that  much 
practice  in  writing  is  secured  through  strong  motives  or  interests, 
will  soon  eradicate  the  majority  of  errors.  By  the  time  this  is 
accomplished,  pupils  are  ready  for  individual  criticisms  from  teacher 
and  classmates. 

Vocational  guidance  has  a  large  place  in  the  work  of  any  eighth- 
grade  teacher,  and  pupils'  individual  interests  will  control  the 
teacher's  selection  of  literature  to  read  and  topics  to  assign  for 
composition  work.      (See  reference  list,  pp.  300-302.) 

The  teacher  is  also  needed  to  help  pupils  realize  that  their  ideals 
will  work  in  daily  living,  if  only  correct  means  are  used.  (A  few 
adult  "croakers"  to  the  contrary!)  As  the  President  said  in  his 
Philadelphia  speech  to  our  immigrants,  "You  dreamed  dreams  of 
what  America  was  to  be,  and  I  hope  you  brought  the  dreams  with 
you.  No  man  who  does  not  see  visions  will  ever  realize  any  high 
hope  or  undertake  any  high  enterprise,  and  just  because  you 
brought  the  dreams  with  you,  America  is  more  likely  to  realize 
dreams  such  as  you  brought.  You  are  enriching  us  if  you  come 
expecting  us  to  be  better  than  we  are."  What  he  further  said  may 
be  thus  adapted  to  our  boys  and  girls:  The  constant  addition  of 
youth  to  the  world  is  meant  to  better  the  ideals  of  men,  to  make 
them  see  finer  things  than  they  have  seen  before,  to  get  rid  of  the 
things  that  divide,  and  to  make  sure  of  the  things  that  unite.  No 
doubt  you  will  be  disappointed  in  some  things,  no  doubt  many 
things  you  find  in  the  world  will  not  seem  to  be  touched  for  you 
with  the  complete  beauty  of  the  ideal  which  you  now  conceive; 
but  remember  your  mission  is  to  help  forward — never  to  renounce 
your  ideals;  though  they  may  not  seem  to  be  working,  they  will  be. 
Good  is  bound  to  overcome  evil;  "Life  is  ever  lord  of  Death,  and 
Love  can  never  lose  its  own." 

Kenneth  Graham's  "Dream  Days,"  and  "A  Golden  Age,"  will 
help  children,  who  can  appreciatingly  look  back  a  year  or  two  into 
their  lives,  to  see  how  a  given  act  appears  in  two  lights  to  children 
and  to  adults. 

Opportunity  should  be  given  for  the  writing  of  poetry  as  well 
as  prose,  and  of  puns,  riddles,  conundrums,  limericks,  and  jokes. 

No  new  features  of  "mechanics"  will  be  demanded,  but  all  given 
before  should  be  constantly  applied,  and  pupils  should  themselves 
be  held  for  putting  into  good  shape  all  manuscript  "handed  in." 
The  mechanics  will  naturally  be  motivated  more  largely  than  be- 
fore  by    the   subject-matter   or   the   purpose   of   the   composition, 


62  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

whether,  for  example,  the  work  is  to  appear  in  a  school  paper,  or 
a  real  newspaper;  to  be  given  at  a  school  assembly,  or  to  be  used  in 
the  annual  exhibit. 

Since  the  children's  good  handwriting,  laboriously  acquired, 
must  not  be  permitted  to  grow  poor,  and  since  there  will  necessa- 
rily be  heavy  demands  on  students  for  rapid  and  much  writing  in 
connection  with  note  taking  upon  talks  heard  and  reference-books 
consulted,  the  teacher  may  do  well  to  suggest  some  sort  of  conven- 
tionalized abbreviations  or  "shorthand"  for  note-taking.  Any 
system  can  be  used;  the  one  given  is  only  suggestive  of  what  may 
be  done:  wh  for  which,  whl  for  while,  whn  for  when;  looks,  asks, 
etc.,  for  the  progressive  form  of  verbs,  and  look6-,  askd,  etc.,  for  past 
forms.  The  principle  is,  of  course,  to  select  characteristic  letters 
after  the  beginning  is  clear!  Compare  revlain  (revelation)  and 
reviutn  (revolution).  Children  may  also  use  abbreviations  from 
their  dictionary  study:  e.  g.,  cf,  i.  e.,  ibid,  ditto,  etc.;  and  may  even 
use  mathematical  symbols  for  abbreviations,  such  as  =  to  mean 
alike  or  the  same,  .'.  for  hence  or  therefore,  >  or  <  for  greater,  less, 
more  important  than,  or  less  important  than;  figures  instead  of  spelled- 
out  numbers;  and  two  short  vertical  lines  for  the  word  parallel. 
For  fear  this  may  interfere  with  spelling,  the  words  should  be 
written  in  full  in  all  transcribed  notes,  and  pupils  should  know  that 
all  numbers  must  be  spelled  out  in  an  essay  or  in  the  body  of  a 
letter.  The  penmanship  should  be  rapid  enough  to  permit  the 
execution  per  minute  of  from  85  to  95  letters  of  good  quality. 
(Use  system  or  scale  of  penmanship  adopted  in  the  school.  See 
pp.  292-295,  for  scales  and  references.) 

Spelling  and  dictionary  work  as  before  indicated  should  be  kept 
up.  Some  teachers  advocate  the  organization  of  only  spelling  or 
penmanship  "hospital"  classes,  omitting  these  subjects  for  all  but 
pupils  who  need  them.  Certainly  if  in  all  daily  work  pupils  show 
themselves  up  to  grade  they  may  forego  practice  whenever  the 
school  management  makes  this  feasible.     (See  pp.  98-104.) 

Grammar,  introduced  either  as  an  aid  to  better  thinking  and 
talking  or  as  a  separate  English  subject,  is  almost  universally 
taught  in  eighth  grade,  and  often  in  seventh  or  even  in  sixth  grade. 
(See  separate  treatment  below.) 

What  should  be  expected  by  the  end  of  the  eighth  grade. — In  listen- 
ing, ability  to  gather  the  gist  of  a  talk,  and,  if  the  talk  is  well 
organized,  ability  to  name  the  leading  points  and  not  be  carried 
away  by  some  incident,  even  if  clean  and  pleasing,  told  either  to 
rest  the  audience  or  to  illustrate  a  large  point;  to  recognize  a  fair 
amount  of  apt  phrasing,  pleasing  sentence  structure,  and  pertinent 


Language. — Grade  VIII. — Grammar.  63 

metaphors,  similes,  and  metonomies.  In  reading,  (listening  with 
the  eye,)  to  be  able  to  (1)  carry  a  point  through  a  fairly  lengthy 
article;  (2)  know  whether  the  point  was  consistently  sustained,  or 
whether  the  position  was  shifted;  and  (3)  whether  details  were  per- 
tinent or  whether  incongruities  crept  in.  In  speaking,  to  stand 
well,  use  good  tones  and  clear  enunciation,  say  something  worth 
while  on  a  subject  suited  to  eighth-grade  pupils'  interests  and 
abilities,  and  say  it  so  that  a  willing  audience  can  follow  the  speaker 
and  gather  the  thought.  Above  this  as  a  minimum,  many  pupils 
can  attract,  hold,  and  secure  reaction,  from  their  audience.  In 
writing,  pupils  should  show  ability  equal  to  that  required  in  oral 
work,  including  such  control  of  the  mechanics  of  written  work  as 
not  to  hinder  their  free  expression  nor  the  reader's  correct  inter- 
pretation of  the  thought.  At  least  97%  of  all  words  used  should 
be  correctly  spelled,  though  some  may  still  have  to  be  looked  up 
in  the  dictionary. 

Grammar 

In  carrying  out  the  policy  of  the  Minnesota  Committee  on 
Elimination,  grammar  is  not  separately  outlined  before  the  eighth 
grade,  though  grammatical  terms  are  not  excluded  from  any  grade 
where  they  will  help  the  child  to  talk  about  his  work  or  to  under- 
stand the  teacher's  criticisms.  The  work  to  be  accomplished  is 
definitely  stated  in  that  report,  and  is  repeated  below: 

The  records  show  that  the  great  majority  of  children  in  the  Elementary 
Schools  never  go  beyond  them,  and  when  we  teach  grammar  therein  it  should 
be  with  a  motive  suited  to  this  condition.  With  these  young  students  grammar 
should  be  studied  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  them  to  understand  the  construc- 
tions of  the  language  they  hear,  read,  and  speak,  and  also  to  speak  and  write  it 
with  accuracy  and  fluency.  That  is  about  all  a  youth  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  can 
accomplish.  Technical  grammar  as  a  science,  or  an  exercise  in  logic,  has  no 
place  in  the  grades. 

The  committee  therefore  recommends  that  Grammar,  as  such,  should  not 
be  studied  below  the  seventh  grade  and  preferably  not  below  the  eighth  grade. 

In  order  that  children  may  pass  freely  from  school  to  school,  and  all  take  the 
same  state  examination,  the  first  requisite  is  that  all  texts  on  grammar  should  use 
the  same  terms  to  express  the  same  ideas  and  relations.  Each  writer  should  not 
be  permitted  to  invent  terms  at  will. 

This  committee  recommends  the  adoption  and  use  in  this  state  of  a  single 
uniform  grammatical  terminology.  It  further  recommends  the  use  of  the  ter- 
minology recommended  to  and  adopted  by  the  National  Education  Association 
at  its  Salt  Lake  Meeting,  so  far  as  it  is  practicable  to  do  so. 

But  as  the  report  provides  for  a  very  extended  study  of  grammar,  while 
this  committee,  at  this  time,  is  recommending  a  minimum  course  for  the  ele- 
mentary schools  and  for  the  state  examinations,  we  would  suggest  that,  while  fol- 
lowing the  above  report,  we  limit  the  amount  of  work  to  the  following: 


64  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

The  eight  parts  of  speech. 

1.  Nouns:  (a)  In  general,  no  distinctions  as  to  kinds  except  common  and  proper. 

(A)   Two  case  forms:   Common  and  genitive. 

2.  Pronouns:   (a)   Personal,  relative. 

(b)   Person,  gender,  number,  and  cases. 

(Note:  Case  not  always  distinguished  by  form.) 

3.  Adjectives:   (a)  Degree. 

4.  Verbs:   (a)   Kinds:  Transitive,  intransitive. 

(6)    Conjugation:  regular,  irregular;  but  not  to  be  learned  apart  from  the  study  of 
sentences  and  selections. 

(c)  Person:  first,  second,  third,  with  personal  subjects.     Impersonal. 

(d)  Number:  Singular,  plural. 

(e)  Voice:  Active,  passive. 

(/)    Mood:  Indicative  and  imperative  only. 

(g)   Non-modal  forms:  simple  infinitives  and  participles. 

(A)  Tense:  All. 

5.  Prepositions.  7.  Adverbs. 

6.  Conjunctions.  8.  Interjections. 
The  Sentence. 

Kind — Simple,  complex,  compound. 

Declarative,  interrogative. 
Subject — Simple,  compound. 

Complete  subject,  subject  substantive. 
Predicate — Simple,  compound. 

Complete  predicate,  predicate  verb. 
Clauses — Principal,  subordinate. 
Use  of  clauses — Substantive,  adjective,  adverbial. 
Phrases — Substantive,  adjective,  adverbial. 

Nothing,  however,  about  methods  of  teaching  grammar  was 
there  mentioned,  and,  since  modern  methods  depart  widely  from 
older  methods,  space  should  unquestionably  be  given  the  subject. 
For  at  least  eight  years,  the  English  department*  and  the  upper- 
grade  teachers  of  the  elementary  school  at  Winonaf  have  united 
in  working  out  methods  of  teaching  what  grammar  seemed  needed 
to  seventh-  and  eighth-grade  pupils  by  "inductive"  or  "thought" 
methods.  Such  methods  have  been  tried  elsewhere  in  the  United 
States,  and  very  widely  in  some  foreign  countries,  but  since  the 
writer  knows  the  Winona  plans  best,  she  asks  the  liberty  of  giving 
them,  in  preference  to  others,  to  the  teachers  of  the  state. 

The  basis  of  the  work,  to  be  kept  in  mind  by  the  teacher,  and 
only  gradually  made  known  to  pupils,  is  given  below  :J 

A.  Sentences  are  composed  of  elements  called  ideas. 

B.  These  ideas  are  of  three  kinds — 

1.  Substantive  ideas.     2.  Attribute  ideas.     3.  Relation  ideas. 

C.  These  three  kinds  of  ideas  are  expressed  by  three  kinds    of    words    or 

groups  of  words — 
1.  Substantive  words.     2.  Attribute  words.     3.  Relation  words. 

D.  There  are  three  ideas  in  the  thought,  the  first  being  always   substantive, 

the  second  either  substantive  or  attribute,  and  the  third  the  relation 
Ik  t  ween  them. 

*  Mrs.  C.  B.  Chorpcnning,  leader. 

t  Misses  Saunders,  Storie,  Hurkholder,  and  their  assistants. 

t  The  remainder  of  the  discussion  is  taken  almost  bodily  from  the  Winona  Normal  Bulletin, 
March,  1916. 


Grammar. — Grade  VIII. — Sentence  Elements.  65 

E.  The  thought  is  expressed  by  a  sentence  which  uses  substantive  words, 

attribute  words,  and  relation  words,  (or  groups  of  words  in  each  case,) 
to  stand  for  the  ideas  involved. 

F.  Words  or  groups  of  words,  representing  ideas,  and  called  modifiers,  may 

change  or  limit  the  meaning  of  other  words  or  groups  of  words  repre- 
senting other  ideas. 

The  real  grammar  work  begins  when  the  children  are  old  enough 
to  consider  logically  the  work  of  the  sentence  as  the  vehicle  of  a 
thought;  and  this  work  is  continued  consistently  until,  through  the 
breaking  up  of  the  thought  into  ideas,  and  of  the  sentence  into 
words  which  express  the  ideas,  the  child  has  been  forced,  by  his 
own  thinking,  back  and  back,  through  the  ideas  and  the  words,  to 
the  parts  of  speech  and  their  variations. 

Sentence  Elements. 

Through  the  actual  inspection  of  sentences,  and  the  attempt  to 
find  what  these  sentences  arouse  in  his  own  mind,  the  pupil's  atten- 
tion becomes  directed  to  the  elements  of  the  sentence.  When  asked 
what  he  finds  in  his  own  mind  as  a  result  of  scrutinizing  the  sen- 
tences, he  is  sure  at  an  early  stage  to  refer  to  certain  mental  images 
or  "pictures."  What  he  has  really  found  is  an  idea,  for  he  has  not 
only  found  his  "picture,"  but  he  has  also  put  meaning  into  the  pic- 
ture. To  talk  about  putting  in  meaning  would  probably  only  con- 
fuse him,  and  he  is  allowed  to  ignore  this  difference  and  to  call  the 
elements  that  he  finds  "images"  or  "mental  pictures."  When  he 
has  a  little  more  experience  with  these  elements,  he  is  told  that 
they  are  ideas;  but  the  fact  of  their  being  images  plus  meanings  is 
not  forced  upon  him,  since  there  seems  to  be  no  particular  value  in 
insisting  upon  this  fact  at  this  point. 

When  the  term  "idea"  means  something  to  him — when  he  can 
isolate  and  in  a  small  degree  examine  these  elements  of  his  mental 
content — he  is  led  to  distinguish  between  the  idea  and  the  word  or 
group  of  words  which  expresses  the  idea.  Then  he  is  led  to  the 
discovery  that  there  are  different  kinds  of  ideas  in  a  sentence,  ex- 
pressed by  different  kinds  of  words.  He  finds  that  there  are  some 
ideas  upon  which  his  mind  can  focus — ideas  upon  which  his  mind 
can  rest  as  the  ear  rests  upon  the  dominant  note  of  a  scale.  Such 
ideas  are  book,  man,  flower,  etc.  He  finds  other  ideas  in  the  same 
sentences  which  cause  his  mind  to  be  vaguely  uneasy  until  it  finds 
something  to  which  the  ideas  should  be  attached.  "Black,"  for 
example,  is  such  an  idea.  The  mind  persistently  asks,  "Black?" 
"Black  what?"  This  tendency  to  search  is  comparable  to  the  call 
which  the  ear  makes  when  it  hears  the  leading  tone  "fah,"  and  is 
not  satisfied  until  it  traces  it  into  the  tone  to  which  it  leads.     Then 


66  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

there  is  a  third  class  of  ideas  which  stand  between  two  other  ideas. 
They  produce  the  feeling  of  being  between  ideas  even  when  the 
other  ideas  are  not  expressed,  and  they  carry  the  mind  out  in  two 
directions,  as  does  the  idea  "in."  The  pupil  is  led  to  notice  the 
response  of  his  mind  to  the  idea.  He  finds  himself  saying,  "In? — 
Yes;  something  is  in  something."  Thus  the  three  kinds  of  ideas 
are  made  clear  through  the  pupil's  attention  to  his  own  mental 
content. 

Care  is  also  taken  immediately  to  show  that  these  ideas  are  not 
always  expressed  in  single  words  alone.  The  possibility  of  needing 
a  group  of  words  for  a  single  idea,  is  emphasized  at  this  point  to  the 
degree  which  seems  wise,  and  reemphasized  a  little  later  in  connec- 
tion with  the  three  ideas  of  a  thought,  and  the  discussion  of  modifiers. 

As  soon,  however,  as  the  three  typical  kinds  of  ideas  are  dis- 
criminated, the  names  are  logically  called  for  by  the  pupil,  and 
they  are  at  once  given.  As  soon  as  the  pupil  begins  to  use  the 
terms  substantive,  attribute,  and  relation,  as  names  for  the  type 
ideas,  he  is  led  to  form  a  definition  of  each  of  these  ideas  and  of 
the  word  or  words  which  express  the  idea.  A  substantive  idea 
is  an  idea  upon  which  the  mind  can  rest;  it  is  expressed  by  a  substan- 
tive word  or  group  of  words.  An  attribute  idea  is  an  idea  that 
refers  the  mind  in  one  direction;  it  is  expressed  by  an  attribute 
word  or  words.  A  relation  idea  is  an  idea  that  refers  the  mind  in 
two  directions;  it  is  expressed  by  a  relation  word  or  words. 

Just  how  far  children  should  be  required  to  go  in  distinguishing 
between  the  substantive  idea  and  the  substantive  word  which  ex- 
presses the  idea, — just  how  far  they  should  go  in  distinguishing  the 
thought  from  the  sentence  which  expresses  the  thought, — is  diffi- 
cult to  determine.  The  child  should  realize  that  the  symbols  are 
only  the  means  of  expressing  the  thought  or  the  idea  which  lies 
back  of  the  symbol.  If  it  is  reasonably  certain  that  he  could  trans- 
late the  symbol  into  the  content  if  called  upon  to  do  so,  then  it  is 
reasonably  safe  to  allow  him  to  deal  with  the  symbol  without  al- 
ways referring  to  the  content  back  of  it.  So  he  may  talk  about  a 
substantive  written  on  the  blackboard  without  always  stopping  to 
explain  that  he  means  a  substantive  word  and  not  a  substantive 
idea;  and  he  may  talk  about  the  sentence  as  the  unit  of  thought 
without  always  stopping  to  explain  that  he  means  that  the  sentence 
is  not  the  thought,  but  merely  expresses  the  thought. 

If  the  problem  of  mixed  ideas  arises,  just  enough  is  done  with 
it  to  make  it  possible  to  disregard  the  presence  of  such  ideas  when 
they  are  found  in  the  sentences  analyzed.  The  children  are  given 
a  brief  explanation,  and  then  are  asked  to  defer  this  phase  of  the 


Grammar. — Grade  VIII. — Sentence  Elements.  67 

work  until  later.  The  consideration  of  a  few  such  ideas  aids  clarity 
of  thought  by  showing  that  an  idea  may  belong  to  more  than  one 
class  at  the  same  time.  This  is  especially  helpful  in  discussing 
transitive  verbs.  The  main  function  of  the  idea,  however,  may  be 
used  as  the  criterion  as  to  what  it  is  in  the  particular  case,  and  the 
mixed  nature  of  the  idea  relatively  ignored.  In  determining  the 
true  nature  of  ideas  it  is  pointed  out  that  a  substantive  may  be 
described  through  its  attributes  and  relations;  and  that  an  attri- 
bute may  be  proved  by  showing  to  what  substantive  it  belongs. 

Function  of  Each  Sentence  Element. 

The  study  so  far  will  have  been  about  ideas  as  recognized  in 
sentences.  The  work  now  turns  to  the  study  of  the  sentence  as 
the  vehicle  of  thought,  and  it  develops  that  every  sentence  must 
have  the  three  kinds  of  ideas — no  more  and  no  less.  Thinking  is 
the  relating  of  two  ideas  by  means  of  a  third  idea;  and  the  sentence 
is  the  expression  of  this  relation.  The  most  important  substan- 
tive, the  thing  about  which  the  sentence  says  something,  is  the 
subject;  the  second  and  third  ideas  taken  together  are  the  predi- 
cate. The  second  idea  may  be  either  a  substantive  or  an  attribute. 
If  it  is  a  substantive,  it  either  identifies  or  classifies  the  subject. 
The  distinction  between  identification  and  classification  is  believed 
to  be  fundamental,  and  the  children  give  careful  attention  to  the 
distinguishing  of  these  relationships.  They  discover  that  the  iden- 
tification is  reversible  in  thought,  but  that  the  classification  is  not; 
thus  they  get  many  sidelights  upon  their  own  thinking,  including 
at  least  a  slight  view  of  the  logical  fallacy  of  the  undistributed 
middle  term. 

The  third  idea  in  the  sentence  is  found  to  be  always  a  relation. 
In  the  use  of  the  expressions,  first,  second,  and  third  idea,  it  is 
made  clear  to  the  class  that  these  words  do  not  necessarily  indicate 
the  order  in  which  the  ideas  occur  in  the  sentence. 

It  is  necessary  also  to  make  it  clear  very  early  that  both  the 
second  and  third  ideas  of  a  thought  may  be  expressed  in  one  word; 
as,  "The  horses  run,"  "Flowers  grow."  This  is  done  through  a 
discussion  of  the  ideas  involved,  and  through  showing  that  the  one 
word  fulfills  the  function  of  expressing  both  ideas.  The  children 
are  allowed  to  think  of  "The  horses  run,"  as  "The  horses  are  run- 
ning," and  of  "Flowers  grow,"  as  "Flowers  are  growing."  This  is 
in  a  sense  not  accurate,  since  idiomatic  English  has  preempted 
these  forms  for  another  purpose,  viz.,  that  of  the  progressive  form 
of  the  verb;  but  the  inaccuracy  is  not  harmful,  and  seems  to  have 
value  in  making  the  point  clear. 


68  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

After  the  three  types  of  ideas  can  be  recognized,  either  as  single 
words  or  groups  of  words,  and  after  it  is  clear  that  the  first  idea 
constitutes  the  subject  of  the  sentence  and  the  second  and  third 
ideas  the  predicate  of  the  sentence,  then  the  terms  "complete  sub- 
ject," "subject  substantive,"  "complete  predicate,"  "predicate 
verb,"  and  "modifier"  are  developed.  A  modifier  is  shown  to  be 
a  word  or  group  of  words  which  changes  the  meaning  of  another 
word  or  group  of  words.  The  complete  subject  is  the  subject  sub- 
stantive with  its  modifiers.  The  complete  predicate  is  the  predi- 
cate verb  with  its  modifiers.  Modifiers  are  not  at  this  point  differ- 
entiated into  adjective,  adverbial,  etc.,  but  are  designated  merely 
as  substantive,  attribute,  etc.,  awaiting  the  time  when  the  more 
definite  discussion  of  the  parts  of  speech  makes  the  more  definite 
naming  of  modifiers  possible. 

There  is  also  care  to  show  that  there  are  other  relations  than  the 
main  relation  or  third  term  of  the  sentence,  and  to  see  that  pupils 
are  able  to  distinguish  between  other  relation  ideas  and  this  main 
relation.  Little  is  done,  however,  at  first,  with  the  specific  names 
of  these  other  relations. 

For  drill,  children  are  given  ideas  to  analyze  and  to  identify.  They  give 
one  another  ideas  to  analyze  and  to  identify.  They  are  given  an  analysis  and 
asked  to  find  an  idea  to  fit  it;  as,  "I  feel  vibration,  see  steam,  and  hear  a  roar," 
etc.  They  are  given  lists  of  attributes  to  see  whether  they  can  tell  what  sub- 
stantives they  make  up.  They  contest  to  see  who  can  find  the  most  attributes  in 
a  ball,  a  lion,  a  peacock,  a  wheel,  etc.;  this  is  tested  out  also  for  relations.  They 
try  to  find  one  attribute  of  a  substantive  which  is  so  important  that  it  determines 
the  substantive;  as  speeding,  melting,  etc.  They  try  to  describe  substantives 
in  the  fewest  attributes  and  relations;  in  the  process  of  this  they  play  "20  ques- 
tions, 10  attributes,  and  10  relations,"  etc.  Sentences  are  given  in  inverse  order 
in  order  to  drill  the  fact  that  the  first  idea  of  the  sentence  does  not  always  come 
first  in  the  sentence.  In  order  that  children  may  fix  more  definitely  the  fact  that 
each  idea  is  essential  in  the  thought,  they  are  asked  such  a  question  as,  "Which 
idea  in  the  thought  is  most  essential?"  Each  child  is  helped  to  put  into  words 
what  he  feels  about  a  given  idea,  and  discussion  is  allowed  to  go  on  so  long  as 
what  is  being  said  seems  to  be  profitable. 

After  it  is  certain  that  the  class  commands  the  problem  of  com- 
plex ideas  expressed  by  more  than  one  word,  the  two  classes  of 
complex  ideas,  phrases  and  clauses,  are  identified  and  named.  A 
phrase  is  a  group  of  words  doing  the  work  of  a  single  part  of  speech, 
but  not  containing  a  subject  or  a  predicate.  A  clause  is  a  group  of 
words  doing  the  work  of  a  single  part  of  speech  and  containing  a 
subject  and  a  predicate. 

The  children  then  deal  with  clauses,  and  find  that  some  are  sub- 
ordinate and  some  coordinate.  They  then  take  up  the  problem  of 
complex  and  compound  sentences,  and  arrive  at  the  definitions  of 


Grammar. — Grade  VIII. — Parts  of  Speech.  69 

such  sentences.  A  simple  sentence  contains  a  subject  and  a  predi- 
cate, with  no  subordinate  thought  in  either.  A  complex  sentence 
is  the  expression  of  one  principal  thought,  and  of  one  or  more  sub- 
ordinate thoughts.  A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more 
clauses  neither  of  which  is  a  part  of  the  other. 

Parts  of  Speech. 

The  class  next  makes  a  more  intensive  study  of  the  three  kinds 
of  ideas,  and  sees  them  break  up  into  smaller  units.  They  discover 
two  kinds  of  substantive  ideas  and  two  kinds  of  substantive  words. 
One  substantive  word  expresses  the  idea,  and  the  other  only  repre- 
sents the  idea.     The  first  is  a  noun,  the  second  is  a  pronoun. 

They  also  find  different  kinds  of  attribute  ideas,  and  come  to 
know  that  an  adjective  is  an  attribute  of  a  substantive;  and  that 
an  adverb  is  an  attribute  of  an  attribute  or  of  a  relation. 

Relations  break  up  into  (1)  pure  relations  between  the  first  and 
second  terms  of  the  thought  (which  relations  are  called  linking 
verbs);  (2)  other  pure  relations  called  conjunctions;  and  (3)  rela- 
tions plus  an  attribute,  (usually  of  location,)  which  relations  are 
called  prepositions.  There  are  also  found  asserting  words  which 
contain  both  an  attribute  and  a  relation,  and  which  are  called  attri- 
butive verbs. 

Attributive  verbs  which  are  incomplete,  in  the  sense  that  the 
attribute  which  the  verb  contains  is  in  itself  a  relation  and  there- 
fore sends  the  mind  out  after  something  to  complete  it,  are  transi- 
tive verbs.  Attributive  verbs  which  are  complete,  in  the  sense  that 
the  attribute  involved  does  not  send  the  mind  out  after  something 
to  complete  it,  are  intransitive  verbs,  and  are  also  called  complete 
verbs. 

Interjections  are  regarded  as  expressions  of  emotion  not  prop- 
erly belonging  to  any  term  of  the  thought,  and  are  dealt  with  along 
with  such  words  as  "the"  and  in  some  cases  "that,"  etc.,  under  the 
name  of  expletives  or  introductory  words. 

Participles,  infinitives,  and  gerunds,  have  so  much  the  appear- 
ance and  functions  of  the  adjectives  and  the  nouns  whose  places 
they  take,  that  they  are  dealt  with  in  the  main  as  adjectives  and 
nouns,  although  later  their  real  relation  to  the  verb  is  made  more 

clear. 

Uses  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

After  the  various  parts  of  speech  are  discriminated  as  has  just 
been  discussed,  the  uses  of  certain  of  them  are  very  carefully  con- 
sidered. The  uses  of  nouns  dwelt  upon  ar^  (1)  subject,  (2)  predi- 
cate, (3)  direct  object,  (4)  indirect  object,  (5)  appositive,  (6)  gen- 


70  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

itive,  (7)  adjunct  accusative.  Partially  at  this  point,  and  very 
definitely  and  carefully  in  grade  eight,*  the  relation  between  these 
terms,  and  such  terms  as  attribute  complement,  objective  comple- 
ment, etc.,  is  made  clear,  so  that  when  the  pupil  hears  the  latter 
terms  (as  he  is  sure  to  do  in  his  later  work)  he  will  avoid  the  con- 
fusion which  would  surely  come  if  he  did  not  know  the  two  termi- 
nologies.* 

Four  classes  of  nouns  are  recognized:  (1)  A  common  noun  is  a 
noun  that  may  be  applied  to  any  individual  of  a  class;  (2)  a  proper 
noun  is  a  noun  that  may  be  applied  only  to  some  particular  person, 
place,  or  thing;  (3)  an  abstract  noun  is  a  noun  applied  to  names  of 
actions,  qualities,  or  states  of  mind  considered  apart  from  material 
things;  (4)  a  collective  noun  is  a  noun  that  denotes  a  group  con- 
sidered as  one. 

The  uses  of  pronouns  are  essentially  the  same  as  those  of  nouns. 

Six  classes  of  pronouns  are  recognized:  (1)  A  personal  pronoun 
is  a  pronoun  which  shows  by  its  form  whether  it  denotes  the  speaker, 
the  one  spoken  to,  or  the  one  spoken  of;  (2)  a  genitive  pronoun 
is  a  pronoun  which  denotes  possession;  (3)  a  demonstrative  pro- 
noun is  a  pronoun  which  is  used  to  point  out  that  to  which  it  refers; 
(4)  an  interrogative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  by  means  of  which  a 
question  is  asked;  (5)  a  relative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  that  intro- 
duces a  clause  which  it  connects  with  an  antecedent;  (6)  an  indefi- 
nite pronoun  is  a  pronoun  which  does  not  denote  any  particular 
thing  or  group  of  things. 

Uses  of  the  other  parts  of  speech  are  simple,  and  are  indicated 
in  the  definitions  of  such  parts  of  speech.  (Predicate-adjective  will 
probably  need  to  be  dealt  with  separately.) 

Two  classes  of  adjectives  are  recognized:  (1)  A  descriptive  ad- 
jective is  an  adjective  which  expresses  the  kind  or  condition  of  a 
person  or  thing  spoken  of;  (2)  a  limiting  adjective  is  an  adjective 
which  does  not  express  any  idea  of  kind  or  condition,  but  which 
limits  the  idea  conveyed  by  the  noun.  (The  article  is  dealt  with 
as  an  expletive,  as  previously  indicated.) 

Two  classes  of  adverbs  are  recognized:  (1)  An  interrogative 
adverb  is  an  adverb  used  to  introduce  a  question;  (2)  a  relative 
adverb  is  an  adverb  used  to  introduce  a  subordinate  clause. 

The  classes  of  verbs  were  of  necessity  indicated  and  defined  in 
the  discussion  of  the  breaking  up  of  relations  into  different  parts 
of    speech.     Verbs    are    transitive    or    intransitive.     Intransitive 

*  Since,  at  Winona,  the  study  of  grammar  is  begun  at  the  middle  of  the  seventh  y  -ar,  some- 
what more  can  be  done  th.in  when  limited  to  eighth  grade  alone.  Teachers  may  well  note  the 
complete  "clissifications"  as  quoted  from  the  Winona  course,  but  no  lid  limit  their  work  to  mil 
the  lime  spent  upon    he  subject. 


Grammar. — Grade  VIII. — Speech  Inflections.  71 

verbs  are  linking  or  complete.  Transitive  verbs  and  complete 
verbs  are  attributive. 

The  main  classes  of  conjunctions  dealt  with  are  coordinating 
and  subordinating  conjunctions,  as  they  appear  in  the  considera- 
tion of  the  compound  and  the  complex  sentence. 

Prepositions  and  interjections  are  not  divided  into  classes. 

The  matter  of  thinking  cannot  be  hurried.  At  this  point 
teachers  must  give  ample  drill  to  fix  all  new  material,  and  the  using 
of  all  old  as  well,  before  going  on  with  modifications  of  the  parts 
of  speech  and  translation  of  the  nomenclature  used  up  to  this  time 
into  the  common  nomenclature  which  many  of  the  pupils  will  later 
need. 

The  translation  into  the  more  commonly  used  nomenclature  is  of  course  a 
temporary  matter;  and  just  as  soon  as  the  use  of  the  nomenclature  recommended 
by  the  Joint  Committee  on  Grammatical  Nomenclature,  National  Education 
Association,  becomes  general,  this  translation  will  be  unnecessary. 

Speech  Inflections. 

By  this  time  the  pupil  has  become  acquainted  with  the  three 
kinds  of  ideas, — with  the  three  ideas  in  a  thought, — -and  has  seen 
the  ideas  break  up  into  parts  of  speech  which  have  various  uses 
and  classes.  He  has  had  it  continually  emphasized  that  the  part  of 
speech  which  a  certain  word  is,  in  a  given  sentence,  is  determined 
by  the  function  of  the  word  in  that  particular  sentence;  and  he 
realizes  that  a  word  may  be  one  part  of  speech  in  one  sentence,  and 
another  part  of  speech  in  another  sentence.  He  now  comes  to  see 
that  differentiation  in  function  is  further  indicated  by  a  change  in 
the  form  of  a  certain  part  of  speech,  which  change  in  form  comes 
because  of  variation  in  use  in  the  sentence.  Thus  he  is  introduced 
to  modifications  of  the  parts  of  speech.  He  studies  case,  for  exam- 
ple, at  first  in  pronouns  where  the  variation  in  form  for  subject, 
object,  etc.,  is  most  noticeable.  In  later  lessons  he  studies  person, 
number  and  gender,  and  relates  this  knowledge  to  nouns  in  so  far 
as  it  is  applicable.  The  terminology  of  the  joint  report  on  nomen- 
clature is  followed  as  before. 

The  same  general  plan  of  procedure  is  carried  out  with  the 
other  parts  of  speech  until  the  necessary  command  of  modifications 
is  obtained.  Space  does  not  permit  a  detailed  statement  of  the 
whole  matter,  but  enough  has  been  indicated  to  show  the  general 
method  of  attack. 

C— READING. 

Reading  is  that  phase  of  English  which  helps  one  to  obtain  (and, 
in  some  situations,  to  share)  the  thoughts  of  others.     It  helps  one 


72  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

adjust  himself  to  his  three  worlds:  he  secures  material  facts  which 
aid  him  in  his  control  of  the  physical  world;  he  learns,  through  lit- 
erature, how  others  live  and  act  and  think,  provided  he  gets  clear 
pictures  from  words  and  keeps  actively  receptive  to  new  ideas  and 
inspiring  thoughts;  he  secures  new  experiences  as  he  applies  his 
own  to  each  new  situation;  and  so,  as  Hamilton  W.  Mabie  says, 
"Breaks  for  himself  his  bondage  to  time,  to  place,  and  to  narrow 
personal  experiences."  He  can,  in  imagination,  fight  with  Achilles, 
sail  the  main  with  Columbus,  and  wrestle  all  night  on  the  mountain- 
top  with  Jacob's  angel;  he  learns  to  know  himself,  and,  through 
knowing  himself,  to  know  his  fellows  and  his  God.  He  reads  books 
not  to  forget  himself  or  life,  but  the  better  to  understand  life,  and 
himself  in  that  life. 

In  reading,  as  in  language  discussed  above,  there  are  three  phases, 
only  the  first  two  of  which  will,  however,  appear  in  the  outline 
for  every  grade.  Those  two  are:  (1)  Silent  reading,  which  is  really 
"listening"  with  the  eye — gathering  conventional  meanings  from 
symbols  seen  over  and  over  again;  and,  (2)  oral  reading,  which 
corresponds  to  the  imitative  "talking,"  under  language.  The  third 
stage  may  be  either  silent  or  oral,  yet  is  distinct  from  the  usual 
meaning  of  both,  since  it  demands:  initiative;  power  to  interpret  the 
thoughts  read  either  to  one's  self,  as  in  studying,  or  for  others,  as 
in  reading  artistically;  ability  to  "read  between  the  lines";  to  gather 
deeper  and  richer  meanings;  to  philosophize!  Though  there  will 
be  daily  preparation  for  this  stage  in  the  lower  grades,  it  can  not 
be  consciously  worked  for  by  the  child  until  he  has  a  comparatively 
rich  experience,  a  highly  developed  imagination,  an  easy  command 
of  symbols  (words,  phrases,  punctuation,  etc.),  and  a  ready  emo- 
tional response.  Some  would  attempt  no  interpretative  reading  in 
the  grades,  as,  correspondingly,  they  would  expect  no  original  com- 
position work  there;  but  many  others  feel  that  one  great  function 
of  the  elementary  school  is  to  teach  children  to  read  so  that  they 
find  in  books  the  great  lessons  of  life,  so  that  they  recognize  which 
of  their  individual  emotions  are  worthy  and  universal,  as  they  see 
them  expressed  by  an  artist.  Hamilton  Wright  Mabie's  idea  of 
"what  it  means  to  read  well"  may  well  be  considered  here.  He 
says:  "No  book,  however  well  written,  is  complete  without  a  good 
reader;  and  good  readers  are  almost  as  rare  as  good  writers.  Read- 
ing of  the  right  sort  is  really  a  high  order  of  talent.  It  may  be 
cultivated,  but  with  many  people  it  is  a  gift.  Shakespeare  was  a 
reader  of  genius,  and  his  creative  genius  owed  much  to  his  marvel- 
ous faculty  of  reading,  not  only  with  his  intelligence,  but  also  with 
his  imagination  and  his  heart.     To  read  a  book  with  the  mind  only, 


Reading. — Grade  I.  73 

to  comprehend  the  meaning  of  the  words  and  pass  on,  is  to  leave 
the  substance  of  a  book  untouched."  *  *  *  "First  acquaint- 
ance with  a  book  of  power  or  beauty  is  an  event  in  one's  intellectual 
life.  'One  may  skim  a  book  as  a  swallow  skims  through  the  air 
and  leaves  no  trace  of  its  flight;  or  one  may  build  a  nest  in  a  book 
and  make  it  one  of  the  homes  of  the  spirit  in  the  brief  summer  of 
life.'  The  great  works  of  imagination  ought  to  be  part  of  our  lives 
as  they  were  once  of  the  very  substance  of  the  men  who  made 
them.  You  may  read  the  play  of  'Antony  and  Cleopatra'  and  get 
nothing  from  it  but  a  series  of  brilliant  pictures;  or  you  may  read 
it  and  add  a  large  measure  of  Eastern  and  Roman  life  to  your  own 
life,  and  push  back  the  horizons  of  your  own  experience  so  as  to 
include  these  great  and  tragical  workings  out  of  human  destiny 
under  both  eternal  and  historical  conditions.  This  is  what  hap- 
pens to  true  readers,  and  makes  reading  one  of  the  greater  joys  of 
life.  They  not  only  escape  from  themselves,  but  they  also  come 
into  possession  of  themselves.'''' 

Therefore,  in  upper  grades  some  attention  will  be  given  to  "con- 
structive reading." 

In  teaching  upper-grade  pupils  "how  to  study,"  text-books  will 
sometimes  serve  as  reading  material,  but  literature  will,  in  the 
main,  be  the  subject-matter  used  by  all  pupils  in  learning  to  read. 
Therefore  it  will  not  be  handled  as  for  literary  interpretation,  will 
not  be  analyzed  in  that  way,  but  will  be  read  for  reading's  sake, — 
selected  because  there  is  positive  proof  that  pure  literature  makes 
the  best  subject-matter  for  use  in  studying  the  art  of  reading. 

The  mechanical  side  of  reading  will  be  helped  by  the  usual  aids 
(not  ends  in  themselves) — -phonics,  punctuation,  vocabulary  study 
and  other  composition  work,  grammatical  analysis,  and  voice  work. 

Grade  I. 
To  read  the  written  thoughts  of  another  demands  two  distinct 
powers  on  the  part  of  the  reader:  (1)  Basal  experiences  sufficient 
to  give  content  or  meaning  to  the  words,  coupled  with  an  imagina- 
tive power  which  makes  the  symbolized  experience  real;  and  (2) 
power  over  symbols,  or  forms  of  words  used  to  express  ideas.  To 
illustrate:  (1)  Though  a  comparatively  young  child  might  pro- 
nounce all  the  words  in  this  first  stanza  of  R.  W.  Emerson's  "Brah- 
ma"— 

"If  the  red  slayer  thinks  he  slays, 
Or  if  the  slain  think  he  is  slain, 
They  know  not  well  the  subtle  ways 
I  keep,  and  pass,  and  turn  again." 

— he  could  never  read  it,  for  he  lacks  the  necessary  experience  in 


74  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

life  to  put  any  real  content  into  the  words;  and  (2)  though  an  octo- 
genarian with  years  of  weather  experience  should  attempt  to  read 
„.(peute  tft  c§  fc()i*  fdt/'  he  would  find  himself  barred  unless  he  knew 
the  symbols. 

Because  the  emphasis  has  been  placed,  by  some,  on  the  one 
essential,  and,  by  others,  on  the  second  essential,  two  main  methods 
of  teaching  reading  have  arisen.  If  one  believes  that  emphasis 
upon  symbol  getting  will  quickest  help  the  child  both  to  know 
symbols  and  to  put  content  into  words,  he  will  naturally  use  a 
symbol  method.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  teacher  believes  that 
basal  experiences  are  more  vital  than  symbols  in  the  final  interpre- 
tation of  thought,  he  will  employ  a  thought  or  experience  method. 
Ardent  advocates  of  the  thought  method  do  not  deny  that  symbols 
must  be  known,  and  equally  ardent  supporters  of  a  symbol  method 
have  their  ultimate  goal  the  interpretation,  by  the  reader,  of  the 
symbols  into  thoughts.  The  real  difference  lies  not  in  the  rejec- 
tion of  either  of  the  essentials  of  reading  power,  but  in  the  point  of 
view  as  to  where  the  emphasis  shall  be  placed. 

That  teachers  who  use  thought  methods  resort  to  drills  is  some- 
times counted  against  the  method;  but  this  is  plainly  unfair,  since 
all  agree  that  no  matter  what  the  means  of  presentation  of  a  sub- 
ject is,  only  practice  will  make  the  adjustment  into  a  habit;  the 
child  who  sees  the  carpenter  use  a  saw  gets  the  thought  process  at 
once,  and  even  has  a  strong  desire  to  use  the  tool,  but  it  takes 
practice  for  him  to  secure  good  results  and  feel  an  absolute  control 
of  the  tool.     So  with  words — the  tools  of  reading. 

For  years  primary  teachers  have  received  in  books  and  school 
magazines  much  help  along  the  line  of  methods.  Teachers  will  find 
advocates  for  all  possible  variations  and  combinations  of  the  two 
fundamental  methods,  thought  and  symbol.  Text-books  and  their 
accompanying  manuals  explain  the  different  view-points  of  their 
authors,  and  since  some  teachers  can  succeed  best  with  one  plan 
and  others  do  their  best  work  in  an  almost  opposite  way,  no  one 
method  should  be  entirely  ruled  out.  It  is,  however,  legitimate  to 
say,  that,  in  general,  young  and  inexperienced  teachers  incline  to 
the  more  formal  or  symbol  methods,  because  progress  in  word  rec- 
ognition and  word  pronouncing  seems  easier  to  check  than  does 
growth  in  connotation;  while  teachers  of  wider  experience  and  more 
professional  insight  tend  to  use  thought  methods,  having  found  that 
thought  work  will  motivate  the  acquisition  of  symbols  very  much 
better  than  acquisition  of  symbols  can  ever  be  made  to  motivate 
thoughtful  reading. 


Silent  Reading. — Grade  I.  75 

Tests  made  by  some  English  experts  indicate  that  thought 
methods  produce  more  intelligent  and  more  fluent  reading  in  less 
time  to  the  page  than  do  phonic  or  other  symbol  methods,  even 
though  these  methods  are  used  by  capable  teachers  who  enthusi- 
astically support  their  own  methods.* 

Children  are  so  eager  to  read  that  many  learn  as  did  Hugh 
Miller ,f  in  spite  of  poor  methods  of  teaching;  and  others,  like  Robert 
Louis  Stevenson,  discover  a  process  of  reading  with  no  teaching. 
Children  who  read  of  their  own  accord  get  carried  away  by  the 
thought  and  pay  no  attention  to  words  which  would  get  in  the  way 
of  an  adult  reader.  The  type,  the  short  sentences  which  virtually 
make  paragraphs  in  the  child's  thinking,  the  happy  illustrations  in 
our  modern  primers  and  first-readers,  together  with  the  fact  that, 
in  general,  the  vocabulary  used  is  already  a  part  of  the  child's 
speaking  equipment,  and  hence  is  possessed  of  rich  content  as  soon 
as  heard,  tend  to  minimize  the  bad  effects  of  symbol  methods,  and, 
by  the  results,  seem  to  suggest  that  mere  word  calling  is  all  that  is 
necessary.  Thought  methods  apply  equally  to  word  and  sentence 
devices.  Though  full  sentences  are  best  for  native-born  children, 
the  thought-word  method  has  proved  best  for  foreign  children  who 
are  unacquainted  with  English  idioms.  Such  children  also  need  a 
large  amount  of  motor  activity  to  clarify  and  to  clinch  meanings 
of  symbols  for  them. 

Silent  Reading. — This  phase  of  the  work  should  predominate 
during  the  first  few  months,  if  not  throughout  the  entire  first  year. 
A  child  must  not  have  too  many  problems  to  solve  at  once,  and  if 
he  is  laboring  to  get  the  thought  from  new  symbols,  he  must  not 
be  expected  at  the  same  time  to  give  it  well  to  others.  He  may 
read  out  loud, — that  is,  with  his  lips, — but  an  observer  readily  sees 
that  he  is  making  lip  and  other  movements  merely  as  an  aid  to 
thought  gathering,  not  with  any  idea  of  making  these  movements 
expressive. 

Note: — Near  the  end  of  the  year,  a  first  grade  was  expected  to  entertain 
the  other  grades.  They  decided  that  the  guests  would  enjoy  some  of  their  much- 
loved  reading  lessons,  so  they  looked  over  all  the  texts  used  during  the  year  and 
freely  named  their  favorite  stories.  (Incidentally  this  proved  an  excellent  re- 
view.) The  entire  list  selected  was  of  course  impossible,  so  the  children  were 
called  on  to  use  judgment  in  narrowing  the  stories  to  the  few  that  could  be  given 
in  the  allotted  half  hour.  The  guiding  questions  were:  (1)  Shall  we  have  all 
reading  or  some  reading  and  some  dramatizing?  (2)  Shall  we  choose  stories  a 
great  deal  alike  or  quite  different?  Then,  (3)  which  are  best  for  dramatizing? 
For  reading?  After  checking  a  number  of  tales  similar  in  style,  (4)  which  of 
these  is  the  very  best? 


*  Edmund  J.  Gillin,  Journal  of  Experimental  Pedagogy,  Vol.  I,  London  1911-12. 
t  See  S.  L.  Arnold's  Reading:   How  to  Teach  It.     p.  46. 


76  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Then  came  the  question  of  pleasing  the  audience:  (1)  By  acting  so  plainly 
that  every  one  could  follow  the  story;  or  (2)  by  reading  so  clearly  that  every  one 
could  hear.  The  children  realized  that  some  couldn't  be  heard  so  distinctly  as 
others,  and  that  some  didn't  know  their  words  so  well  as  did  others.  All  read 
and  acted  the  different  stories  for  several  days,  the  children  selecting  those  who 
would  be  likely  to  give  the  guests  most  pleasure.  The  representatives  then  read 
before  their  classmates  for  several  more  days,  until  the  subject-matter  was  very 
familiar  to  all.  Friday  afternoon  arrived.  Several  children  showed  more  or 
less  difficulty  in  adjusting  themselves  to  an  audience  larger  and  different  from 
their  usual  school-room  one,  but  one  child  in  particular  became  a  striking  exam- 
ple of  self-forgetfulness.  Selected  because  she  read  fluently,  clearly,  and  appre- 
ciatively, she  was  given  an  entire  story  to  read.  In  spite  of  her  familiarity  with 
the  thought  and  the  climax,  after  a  few  opening  sentences  which  were  expressively 
given,  she  became  so  engrossed  in  the  story  itself  that  gradually  her  tones  grew 
lower  and  lower  until  she  was  scarcely  heard  by  the  nearest  person.  Audience 
was  forgotten;  self  was  forgotten.  To  all  intents  and  purposes  she  was  alone 
with  her  story  and  she  was  enjoying  it  to  the  full.  On-lookers  could  see  her 
lips  moving,  her  eyes  sparkling,  her  breathing  showing  her  tense  rapture,  as  she 
turned  page  after  page.  She  finally  reached  the  end  of  the  story  and  with  a 
long  sigh  of  satisfaction  over  the  outcome,  walked  to  her  seat,  still  unconscious 
of  any  audience. 

Although  Virginia  failed  to  make  her  listeners  get  the  thought,  the  whole 
situation  was  a  wonderful  compliment  to  the  first-grade  teacher,*since  it  showed 
that  she  had  aroused  a  real  love  of  reading;  had  selected  texts  that  bore  repeti- 
tion with  no  loss  of  interest — real  literature;  had  used  thought  methods;  and  yet 
had  drilled  sufficiently  to  give  the  child  ready  command  of  symbols. 

Here  was  a  case  where  a  child  already  familiar  with  the  symbols 
was  still  too  engrossed  with  thought  gathering  to  read  expressively 
to  others.  How  much  less  possible,  then,  would  it  be  for  a  child 
not  yet  in  command  of  the  forms,  to  keep  an  audience  in  mind! 

There  must,  of  course,  be  some  expression  to  show  that  the  im- 
pression made  has  been  correct;  but  the  wise  teacher  secures  this 
by  other  devices  than  just  oral  reading,  such  as:  Doing  the  act, 
pointing  to  the  object,  telling  the  story,  pantomiming,  dramatiz- 
ing, cutting  paper,  drawing,  and  modeling. 

Recalling  the  two  fundamentals  in  learning  to  read,  the  teacher 
asks  herself,  (1)  How  can  I  get  the  children  to  enter  completely  into 
the  experiences  portrayed  in  their  reading?  And,  (2)  How  can  I 
create  a  strong  desire  for  mastering  the  symbols?  These  will  be 
dealt  with  in  turn. 

There  are  two  main  sorts  of  experience  to  be  lived:  (1)  That 
had  daily  by  the  children  in  their  games,  in  their  instinctive  ques- 
tionings, imitations,  competitions,  etc.;  (2)  that  gained  imagina- 
tively. On  both  of  these,  the  first-grade  teacher  can  build  reading 
lessons,  arousing  at  the  same  time  a  feeling  of  need  for  symbols. 

Reading  lessons  which  are  based  on  direct  experience  drop  readily 
into  the  imperative-sentence  form,  a  good  method  (but  by  no  means 

*  Miss  Helen  Ford  Staples,  Winona. 


Reading. — Grade  I.  77 

the  only  one)  for  use  during  the  first  month  of  school.  (See  pp. 
230-232,  for  an  illustration  of  this  plan.) 

Imagined  or  indirect  experiences  form  the  basis  for  a  second 
type  of  reading  lessons.  The  teacher  selects  a  unit  of  literature 
suited  to  the  interests  of  the  children.  This  she  tells  well.  (If  she 
isn't  a  good  story  teller,  she  must  study  the  art  from  some  of  the 
numerous  excellent  texts  now  published  on  the  subject — see  Min- 
nesota Library  List.)  The  pupils  reproduce  it  by  several  means — 
telling,  picturing,  dramatizing,  paper-cutting,  etc.  When  the  story 
as  a  whole  has  been  actually  lived  by  the  children,  they  are  ready 
to  read  the  story.  The  lesson  may  be  on  the  blackboard  (written, 
not  printed,  since  the  teacher's  print  is  like  neither  script  nor  book 
print,  and  so  makes  a  third  form  for  the  child  to  learn) ;  or  it  may 
be  printed  on  manila  paper  (with  a  hand  printing-press,  such  as 
every  primary  teacher  needs) ;  or,  best  of  all  to  the  child,  it  may  be 
in  a  book.  (See  pp.  232-237,  for  varied  treatments  of  literature 
as  the  basis  of  the  early  reading  lessons.) 

To  make  pupils  feel  the  need  of  learning  the  symbols,  the  teacher 
must  make  sure  of  three  things: 

1.  That  the  words  symbolize  real  content. 

2.  That  this  content  is,  by  the  child,  recognized  as  valuable — as  something   worth 

his  while  to  get,  even  at  considerable  self  exertion. 

a.  Because  his  instinct  of  play,  or  curiosity,  or  imitation,  or  emulation, 

makes  him  wajit  to  "put  on  the  soldier  cap,"  "get  the  flag,"  "run    to 
the  cupboard,"  or  "eat  the  apple." 

b.  Because  he  wants  to  be  able  to  tell  others  what  to  do  when  he  is  "cap- 

tain" and  needs  to  say  to  one  boy,  "March,"  and,  later,  "Halt";  to 
all  his  soldiers,  "In  time;  march.     Right,  left." 

c.  Because  he  knows  that  the  mastery  of  these  symbols  will  unlock  for  him 

great  store-houses  of  literary  treasures. 

Miss  Arnold,  in  "Reading:  How  to  Teach  It,"  suggests  the  plan  of  a  teacher's 
reading  a  part  of  a  story  just  before  an  intermission,  stopping,  with  expressions  of 
regret,  at  an  interesting  point,  and  saying,  "If  only  you  could  read  yourselves  you 
could  finish  this,  at  noon!"  What  child  wouldn't  feel  the  challenge  and  determine 
that  he  would  learn  to  read,  and  that  without  delay? 

3.  That  the  only  possible  way  for  the  child  to  get  this  valuable  content  is  by  mas- 

tering the  symbols.  The  teacher  does  not  speak  the  words  as  she  writes 
them,  nor  read  a  sentence  every  time  she  shows  one.  If  she  does,  the 
child  has  little  motive  for  getting  the  visual  symbols;  all  he  needs  to  do  is 
to  listen  for  the  auditory  symbols  which  he  has  been  hearing  for  almost 
six  years.  Besides  furthering  close  association  of  meaning  with  visual 
form  by  omitting  sounds,  the  teacher  uses  many  legitimate  devices  for 
securing  the  child's  concentrated  attention  upon  the  form  of  the  words  as 
a  means  to  some  desired  end.  (Not  as  an  end  in  itself,  if  she  is  using  a 
thought  method.) 

Oral  Reading. — In  the  usual  sense  of  oral  reading,  that  is,  re- 
peating expressively  the  author's  exact  words,  little  is  done  in  first 


78  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

grade.  At  certain  times,  and  especially  near  the  end  of  the  year, 
the  teacher  may  hold  the  children  to  the  exact  words,  but  at  other 
times  and  earlier  in  the  year,  the  exact  words  are  less  vital  than  the 
thought.  Should  a  child  be  engrossed  with  the  onward  movement 
of  the  story,  and  say,  "The  fox  ran  into  the  dark  woods"  when  the 
book  says,  "into  the  lonely  forest"  he  would  only  have  been  trans- 
lating the  thought  into  more  familiar  terms  to  him,  and  should  not 
be  told  of  the  change. 

Adults  do  the  same  thing;  why  shouldn't  children?  When  we  meet  a  new 
word,  we  look  up  its  meaning,  and  then,  to  get  any  content  from  the  sentence, 
we  find  ourselves  inserting  each  time  we  meet  the  word  the  synonym  we  know 
best  until  the  content  of  the  new  word  is  ours;  after  that  its  own  form  can  be 
used.  A  "lonely  forest"  to  a  child  who  is  more  familiar  with  the  expression 
"woods,"  and  who  is  lonely  only  in  the  dark,  naturally  becomes  to  him  a  "dark 
woods." 

After  pupils  have  acquired  a  love  of  reading  and  can  think  with 
the  author  with  ease,  the  teacher  may  say,  "That's  what  it  means; 
but  it  isn't  just  what  it  says.  See  whether  you  can  read  what  it 
says."  Later,  phonics  will  help  the  child  distinguish  "meadow," 
"pasture,"  and  "field,"  though  he  may  earlier  have  interchanged 
them  without  loss  to  the  thought.  Special  lessons  may  be  planned 
in  which  the  "rule  of  the  game"  is  to  say  exactly  what  the  book  says. 
The  exact  proportion  of  time  on  thought  and  on  form  must  be  care- 
fully weighed  to  suit  the  needs  of  a  class,  so  that  neither  lack  of 
knowing  form  nor  over  emphasis  on  form  may  retard  the  reading. 

Reading  the  author's  words  aloud  should  be  preceded  by  plans 
which  permit  the  children  to  show  by  action,  by  making,  or  telling, 
that  they  have  silently  gathered  the  correct  thought.  Take  any 
imperative  sentence  lesson.  As  the  teacher  writes  on  the  black- 
board, or  holds  up  a  printed  sentence,  one  child  after  the  other  does 
what  is  indicated.  The  teacher  may  then  say,  "Call  on  some  one 
and  tell  him  what  to  do,  Jane."  Each  child  may  thus  read  orally 
a  single  command.  Later,  one  child  may  act  as  "teacher"  or  "cap- 
tain," reading  several  commands  for  classmates  to  execute.  When 
dramatizing  a  literature  lesson,  the  different  children  make  sure 
they  know  what  they  are  to  say,  and,  at  times,  another  child  may 
read  the  descriptive  parts,  giving  the  actors  their  cues. 

Aids. — The  language  outlines  for  the  grade,  and  pp.  228-230, 
which  show  the  interrelation  of  the  language  arts,  should  be 
studied.  Phonics  should  not  be  introduced  until  pupils  have  a 
fair  sight  vocabulary.  Teachers  differ  individually  as  to  what  is  a 
"fair"  vocabulary  and  as  to  just  what  is  meant  by  "phonics." 
There  is  space  here  for  just  a  word.  Experienced  teachers  who 
study  results  of  different  methods  which  they  use,  incline  to  post- 


Reading. — Grade  I. — Drills.  79 

pone  formal  phonics  to  the  second  grade,  but  do  employ  in  first 
grade  incidental  exercises  which  assist  children  in  discriminating 
sounds  and  forms  in  connection  with  the  context.  They  realize  that 
children  have  to  master  an  immense  number  of  forms  all  at  once, 
and  so  give  them  all  possible  cues,  but  are  careful  to  drop  all  that 
have  only  temporary  value  as  soon  as  children  are  ready  for  more 
permanent  aids  to  independence  in  form  mastery. 

During  the  first  fortnight,  one  teacher  makes  clever  associations  of  form 
with  meaning  after  this  fashion:  Since  "pig"  and  "dog"  are  words  of  the  same 
length  and  end  in  the  same  "curly-tail"  way,  we  must  look  at  the  first  letters  to 
find  in  what  ways  these  words  are  like  the  animals  they  name;  a  pig  has  his  head 
down,  with  his  nose  rooting  in  the  ground  a  good  share  of  the  time,  while  the 
dog  carries  his  head  up,  and  since  the  word  "pig"  begins  with  head  down  and 
"dog"  with  head  up,  you  can  easily  remember  them.  When  the  new  word 
"bread"  is  met,  the  teacher  says,  "You  can  remember  that,  for  here  is  the  loaf 
in  the  pan;  see  the  sides  of  the  pan  [pointing  to  b  and  d]  and  the  loaf  inside  it 
[pointing  to  rea]."  Cues  of  this  sort  should  not  be  forced,  and  should  not  be 
recalled  once,  after  pupils  know  the  words  without  them.  Gradually,  a  few 
initial  sounds  are  taught,  the  teacher  saying,  for  example,  "What  would  be  a 
sensible  word  to  use  here  that  begins  as  this  word  does?"  (The  teacher  sounds 
the  first  letter  of  the  new  word.)  [The  initial  consonants  may  be  divided  into 
four  groups,  according  to  difficulty  of  sounding  them  correctly:  (1)  1,  m,  n,  r,  s; 
(2)  f,  h,  p,  t,  v;  (3)  c  (hard),  j,  k;  (4)  b,  d,  g  (hard).  The  remaining  letters,  q,  w, 
x,  y,  z,  are  seldom  needed  in  first  grade,  so  are  omitted  from  the  four  groups 
above.  A  word  of  caution  may  be  necessary:  care  must  be  taken  that  children 
sound  their  consonants  correctly,  and  not  say,  till  and  urn  for  I  and  m,  or  buh, 
tnh,  and  puh,  for  b,  t,  and  p,  etc.  Teachers  should  spend  necessary  time  in 
studying  the  introduction  to  the  dictionary,  where  sounds  are  so  carefully  dis- 
cussed, if  they  have  the  least  doubt  about  the  correctness  of  the  sounds  they 
are  teaching.  Though  b,  d,  and  g,  are  most  difficult  to  sound  clearly  and  cor- 
rectly, they  may  be  needed  before  some  of  the  easier  sounds.  The  teacher  will, 
however,  if  possible,  begin  with  the  first  group.] 

Drills  on  sentences,  phrases,  and  words  become  necessary,  but, 
as  indicated  above,  should  be  of  a  sort  to  associate  form  and  mean- 
ing rather  than  to  make  form  an  end  in  itself.  (See  suggestions 
for  drills,  pp.  231-237  and  279-283.) 

Seat-work  can  be  made  a  most  valuable  aid  to  reading  if  selected 
(1)  to  fit  the  child's  needs,  interests,  and  ability  to  accomplish;  (2) 
to  give  opportunity  for  many  modes  of  expressing  ideas — cutting, 
tearing,  drawing,  painting,  making,  etc.;  (3)  to  teach  ready  dis- 
crimination in  forms  (not  necessarily  words) ;  (4)  to  associate  words 
and  meanings;  (5)  to  repeat  work  presented  for  the  sake  of  fixing 
it.     (See  pp.  283  and  287-292,  for  seat-work  suggestions.) 

Texts. — (See  p.  225  for  method  of  selecting  readers.)  If  the 
school  is  already  provided  with  texts,  the  teacher  needs  to  evaluate 
them  carefully,  classifying  them  into  those  dealing  primarily  with 
(1)  form,  and   (2)   literary  material.     She  should  next  study  the 


80  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

vocabularies  and  literature  of  the  different  texts,  so  as  to  know 
how  and  when  to  use  each,  if  all  must  be  used.  The  child  wanted 
to  come  to  school  to  "learn  to  read";  that  is,  to  be  independent  in 
gathering  beloved  stories  told  or  read  to  him  at  home.  The  litera- 
ture readers  contain  what  satisfies  this  desire,  and  what  will  entice 
the  child  into  richer  fields.  (See  discussion,  p.  16,  on  the  sort  of 
literature  liked  by  six-year-olds.) 

The  "form"  readers,  if  judiciously  used,  may  serve  as  drill- 
books.  Children  love  the  idea  of  reading  many  books,  and  if  like 
vocabularies  appear  in  several,  this  can  be  done  with  advantage. 
During*  the  early  use  of  books,  the  teacher  will  often  read  parts 
which  the  child  can't  get,  just  as  in  language  she  helps  out  his 
fragmentary  speech.  Gradually  the  child,  through  much  reading, 
picks  up  idiomatic  expressions  which  have  lost  their  old  meaning 
and  have  taken  on  the  nature  of  expletives,  such  for  example  as 
"How  do  you  do?"  "Once  upon  a  time,"  "In  a  far  away  country," 
"Ever  since,"  and  "Once  there  was." 

If  only  one  or  two  readers  are  supplied,  the  teacher  should  ask 
for  more.  If  the  request  can't  be  granted,  the  teacher  must  sup- 
plement book  work  by  a  large  amount  of  blackboard  and  hecto- 
graphed  reading-material  and  by  charts.     (See  pp.  233-234.) 

What  to  expect  by  the  end  of  the  year. — Since  more  definite  stand- 
ards are  being  constantly  made  by  students  of  the  problem,  the 
teacher  should  keep  abreast  of  the  times,  giving  such  tests  as  she 
feels  most  truly  representative  of  pupils'  abilities.  Educators  have 
been  chary  about  setting  a  standard  for  first-grade  pupils,  since 
children  vary  so  greatly  in  their  rate  of  progress,  a  slow  beginner 
often  surpassing  one  more  rapid  by  the  middle  of  the  second  year. 
Then,  too,  the  irregular  attendance  of  first-grade  children  (due  to 
epidemics  and  other  causes)  produces  great  irregularity  in  a  given 
class,  all  members  of  which  may  yet  be  ready  for  second  grade  in 
general  maturity  and  ability.  First-grade  teachers  should  know 
what  the  standards  are  for  second  grade  in  the  several  lines:  vo- 
cabulary control,  rate  of  silent  and  of  oral  reading,  ability  to  gather 
thought,  and  to  pronounce  words  and  sentences  as  well  as  to  read 
expressively,  and  should  do  what  they  can  in  first  grade  towards 
such  standards.  (See  pp.  292-295,  for  discussion  of  standard  tests 
and  their  value.) 

Grade  II. 

Here  the  reading  time  must  be  divided  between  "intensive"  and 
"extensive"  reading.  The  large  sight  vocabulary  naturally  gained 
in  first  grade  must  be  clinched,  analyzed  into  "families"  according 
to  phonetic  stems,  and  made  a  firm  foundation  for  further  growth 


Reading. — Grade  II.  81 

in  vocabulary  acquisition  as  well  as  in  rapid  or  extensive  reading; 
drills  on  local  errors  of  enunciation  (such  as  the  sounds  of  wh,  th, 
and  ing)  become  necessary  as  another  feature  of  "intensive"  work. 
However,  care  must  be  taken  that  mechanics  are  not  permitted  to 
usurp  any  of  the  time  due  to  real  reading,  since  the  early  love  of 
thought  gathering,  regardless  of  "verbal  no-thoroughfares,"  must 
not  be  lost,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  must  be  conscientiously  fur- 
thered by  the  teacher.  The  two  sorts  of  work  should  occur  in  dis- 
tinct periods,  so  that  children  gain  no  false  notion  that  reading  can 
ever  be  mere  symbol  sounding.  Even  different  text-books  may  be 
used,  the  literature  readers  being  used  for  real  reading,  and  "meth- 
od" readers  being  used  for  symbol  study. 

Silent  Reading. — During  this  year  pupils  can  read  many  books 
containing  the  same  sort  of  literature  as  that  read  in  first  grade; 
the  stories  can  be  longer,  however,  and  may  forego  much  of  the 
repetitive  element  needed  before.  It  is  not  too  early  to  encourage 
home  reading  which  the  teacher  can  influence.  A  school  library 
should  have  plenty  of  easy  books  of  the  sort  to  form  correct  reading 
tastes;  if  the  system  is. a  large  one,  each  teacher  should  select  from 
the  general  library  thirty  to  forty  books  for  a  room  library — to  be 
changed  about  once  in  three  or  four  weeks;  the  teacher  should  in- 
fluence pupils  to  read  at  home  and  report  in  school  parts  liked  or 
things  not  understood.  A  record  should  be  kept  of  the  books  read, 
and  old  favorites  should  be  sprinkled  among  new  selections  month 
by  month.  A  book  that  can't  be  read  more  than  once  isn't  very 
valuable.  Teachers  should  encourage  the  rereading  of  favorites, 
at  the  same  time  cultivating  growing  tastes. 

Presuming  that  a  second-grade  teacher  has  two  regular  reading 
periods,  aside  from  the  time  given  to  phonics,  word  drills,  and  seat- 
work,  the  major  part  of  one  of  these  periods  should  be  devoted  to 
the  testing  of  children's  power  silently  to  gather  thought  and  to 
picture  vividly  the  experiences  portrayed  in  the  simple  tales  read. 

Oral  Reading. — More  than  in  first  grade,  pupils  should  be  held 
to  reading  the  words  of  the  book,  whenever  that  is  the  problem  of 
the  hour.  Of  course  in  extensive  reading,  the  drift,  or  gist,  or 
sweep,  of  the  story  is  what  is  wanted.  To  secure  good  expression, 
the  teacher  must,  even  in  second  grade,  suggest  motives  that  make 
the  child  want  to  do  his  best  to  make  the  audience  understand 
him,  hence  to  speak  clearly,  pronounce  correctly,  and  show  inter- 
est himself  in  the  reading.  Dramatization  is  a  most  effective 
means  because  the  child  readily  sees  the  consequences  of  his  fail- 
ure, if  he  spoils  or  delays  the  play,  or  makes  others  get  their  parts 
wrong. 


82  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Aids. — (See  language  outline  for  the  grade.)  Seat-work  demand- 
ing the  careful  reading  of  blackboard  or  hectographed  directions, 
besides  giving  practice  in  silent  reading,  encourages  independence 
in  all  work.  Many  texts  suited  to  the  grade,  like  Miss  Popp's 
"Tree  Dwellers,"  contain  suggestions  about  "What  to  do"  and 
"Things  to  think  about."  These  can  be  used  as  models  by  the 
teacher,  who  can  ask  similar  questions  about  other  lessons.  The 
work  in  phonics  consists  of:  (1)  Noting  in  a  long  list  of  words  those 
that  contain  common  elements;  that  is,  selecting  the  common 
phonic  stems.  (2)  Learning  these  "stems,"  "keys,"  or  "phono- 
grams." (3)  Learning  the  consonant  sounds  most  needed,  both 
initial  and  final.  (4)  Learning  the  long  and  short  vowel  sounds, 
and  to  know  these  apart  so  that  when  the  teacher  says  "short  a" 
or  "long  i"  the  child  can  instantly  give  the  desired  sound.  (Dia- 
critical marks  should  not  be  learned  unless  necessary  for  the  sys- 
tem of  reading  in  vogue  in  a  given  school.)  (5)  Ability  to  blend 
known  sounds.  This  is  much  harder  than  many  adults  realize, 
and  needs  special  emphasis.  (6)  Learning  to  break  words  up  into 
parts  already  known  and  to  recognize  whether  the  remaining  parts 
are,  or  are  not,  able  to  be  pronounced  independently  by  the  child. 
(7)  Learning  a  few  very  simple  rules  of  pronunciation  of  syllables. 
The  making  of  little  dictionaries  and  alphabet  books  will  teach  the 
alphabet  in  order. 

Punctuation,  as  an  aid  in  getting  the  meaning,  must  be  noted. 
This  will  be  mainly  the  final  mark  of  a  sentence  and  the  capital  at 
the  beginning. 

Word-drills  will  be  necessary  for  securing  fluency  in  both  oral 
and  silent  reading,  and  for  the  sake  of  pronunciation  and  enuncia- 
tion. In  every  community  the  teacher  will  find  local  errors  to  be 
corrected.  If  the  children  tend  to  monotonous  expression,  expres- 
sion drills  of  various  kinds  must  be  resorted  to.  These  can,  how- 
ever, never  equal  the  spontaneous  expression  that  comes  from  hav- 
ing the  correct  feeling,  so  should  not  be  used  except  to  supplement 
other  means. 

Note:  One  Rood  scheme  is  to  accumulate  from  daily  lessons  some  especially  interesting  ex- 
pressions demanding  variation  of  tone,  print  these  on  good-sized  cards  (say  11x14  inches),  and,  if 
possible,  find  a  picture  to  fit  the  expression.  Another  plan  is  to  secure  interesting  pictures  from 
magazines  and  elsewhere,  get  pupils  to  suggest  what  would  naturally  be  said  on  seeing  the  picture, 
and  select  the  best  suggestions  to  be  printed  on  the  cards.  These  cards  may  then  be  used  daily 
for  expression  drills,  the  monotones  gradually  imitating  the  enthusiastic  readers,  and  so  getting 
habits  as  well  as  ideals  of  voice  variation.  Though  the  pictures  can't  be  «hown  here,  they  can  be 
led;  these  arc  a  few  sentences  found  good  for  the  purpose:  1.1)  K-itty  needs  a  nap,  not  milk. 
(2)  Hurry.  Hurry,  John!  We'll  be  late  for  school!  (3)  We  had  the  loveliest  time!  (4)  Oh,  the 
pretty  bird!  (5)  You  can  play  with  me.  (6)  My!  such  big  horses!  (7)  My  baby  sister  can  play 
ball,      in)    Pig.  pig,  do  go  over  the  stile. 

ii  plans  found  on  pp.  230-241,  for  first  and  third  grades  may  contain  some  suggestions 
for  second-grade  teachers. 

What  to  expect  by  the  end  of  the  year. — Ability  to  read  "success- 
fully"  both  silently  and  orally   the  usual  second-grade  literature 


Reading.— Grade  III.  83 

and  lessons,  at  the  rate  accepted  as  a  standard.  (See  p.  292  for 
standards  of  "success"  and  "rate.")  (See  also  language  standards, 
page  24.)  The  number  of  books  read  depends  on  too  many  factors 
to  permit  a  definite  number  to  be  named.  It  depends  on  (1)  the 
general  ability  of  the  class;  (2)  the  ability  of  the  teacher  (one 
teacher  can  make  old  material  interesting  no  matter  how  frequently 
it  is  read,  but  cannot  so  surely  get  results  from  continual  use  of 
new  material;  other  teachers  do  best  with  fresh  material  of  about 
the  same  grade  of  difficulty);  (3)  the  equipment  of  the  school  in  the 
way  of  basal  and  supplementary  material  (whether  in  sets  or  in 
single  copies  from  a  library) ;  (4)  the  aim  of  the  work  as  voiced  by 
superintendents,  teachers,  or  the  "standard  tests"  accepted  for 
that  community;  (5)  the  relative  value  given  to  reading  on  the  daily 
program;  and  (G)  upon  other  less  general  factors. 

Grade  III. 

The  well-done  work  of  the  first  two  years  has  given  pupils  power 
over  visual  symbols  whose  sounds  and  meanings  were  already  well 
known;  eye  movements  in  reading  have  become  habitual;  and  chil- 
dren have  grown  to  love  reading  because  of  the  fun,  information,  or 
entertainment,  it  furnishes.  All  this  must  be  kept  up  by  the  third- 
grade  teacher,  who  finds  new  problems  besides  in  (1)  a  change  of 
subject-matter,  and  (2)  a  consequent  change  in  vocabulary.  Al- 
though the  children  still  enjoy  home  reading  of  cumulative  tales, 
fairy  stories,  myths,  and  legends,  they  are  eager  for  "true"  stories, 
finding  "Letters  from  a  Cat,"  "Viking  Tales,"  "Robinson  Crusoe," 
"Tree  Dwellers,"  "Seven  Little  Sisters,"  and  colonial  history  stor- 
ies, the  types  of  literature  which  appeal  most.  These  stories  de- 
mand accuracy  in  word  calling  to  make  the  meaning  clear,  and, 
since  the  vocabulary  itself  begins  to  be  strange  in  sound  as  well  as 
meaning,  much  work  on  thinking  and  on  supplementing  the  text  has 
to  be  done.  To  keep  a  proper  balance  between  the  necessary  drill 
on  the  rapidly  accumulating  hard  words  and  the  onward  movement 
in  the  story,  exercises  the  wisest  teacher's  ingenuity.  But  that  it 
can  be  done  has  been  proved.  (See  p.  237  f,  for  some  observed  les- 
sons from  "Viking  Tales.")  Children  have  to  be  held  to  "think- 
ing straight,"  to  seeing  definite  situations,  making  sensible  infer- 
ences, and  concentrating  attention  on  specific  problems.  This 
means  that  the  teacher  must  plan  questions  for  study  which  de- 
mand thinking  to  a  purpose,  picturing  described  situations,  and 
many  readings  of  the  same  material.  She  must  also  plan  recitation 
questions  to  check  the  children  on  their  execution  of  the  assign- 
ment, and  yet  to  secure  progress  in  the  story. 


84  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Silent  Reading.— Psychology  seems  to  have  proved  what  many 
people  had  learned  empirically,  that  a  first  rapid  reading  followed 
by  several  successive  slower  readings  will  produce  better  results  in 
a  given  length  of  time  than  will  the  spending  of  the  entire  time  in 
one  slow,  careful  reading  of  the  material. 

Every  conceivable  effort  should  be  made  to  secure  two  daily 
reading  periods  in  third  grade.  One  of  these  should  be  devoted  to 
silent  reading  with  two  main  purposes  in  view:  (1)  the  continuance 
of  extensive  or  appreciative  reading  of  books  beyond  the  children's 
power  to  read  orally;  and  (2)  the  studying  of  reading  lessons  (and 
sometimes  of  other  texts)  to  learn  how  to  set  an  aim  for  getting 
the  most  out  of  a  lesson,  to  practice  doing  this  until  "reading  with 
a  purpose"  is  second  nature  to  the  child,  to  lay  the  foundation  for 
power  to  read  constructively,  to  supplement  the  thought,  to  chal- 
lenge irrational  statements,  to  imagine  the  situations  to  be  real. 
All  of  this  can  not  be  done  with  all  pupils  in  a  single  year,  but  if  a 
start  is  made  in  third  grade,  the  effect  will  be  cumulative  and  posi- 
tive by  the  eighth  grade. 

Children  have  been  made  to  be  much  interested  in  their  own 
growth  in  some  of  these  lines — in  ability  to  ask  sensible  questions 
upon  what  was  known  and  what  was  wanted;  in  ability  to  read 
more  and  more  rapidly  (as  timed  by  the  clock,  in  some  cases;  as 
shown  by  being  among  the  early  ones  "through"  instead  of  among 
the  last  ones,  etc.);  in  ability  to  get  more  and  more  facts  or  reasons 
or  points  from  a  page  in  a  limited  time;  and  in  other  ways  which  sug- 
gest themselves  to  every  teacher  in,  earnest  to  secure  this  growth. 
"Sweep  is  the  word  in  extensive  reading;  thoroughness,  the  word  in 
intensive  reading."  Controlled  library  or  home  reading  helps  the 
one;  the  study-lesson,  with  the  teacher  on  the  alert,  aids  the  other. 

Oral  Reading. — The  classic  or  text-book  selected  for  this  must 
be  below  the  children's  maximum  ability  in  silent  reading.  It 
needs  to  be  dramatic,  emotional,  clamoring  to  be  "shared."  The 
pressure  for  correct  pronunciation,  articulation,  picture  painting, 
and  inflection — the  mechanics  of  reading — must  come  from  the 
thought  or  the  motive  in  reading  aloud,  not  from  external  incentive. 
When,  however,  stumbling,  repetitions,  miscalling  little  words, 
mumbling,  monotonous  reading,  careless  thinking,  or  lax  prepara- 
tion, can  not  be  cured  while  subordinated  to  the  thought  or  emo- 
tions, the  individual  difficulty  must  receive  special  attention  until 
conquered. 

Aids. — (See  usable  suggestions  for  grades  I  and  II.  See 
outlines  for  language  for  grades  I,  II,  and  III.  See  Manual, 
pp.  279-292.)      Since  the  meanings   of   v/ords  are  often  new,  the 


Reading. — Grade  III. — What  to  Expect.  85 

child  must  be  urged  to  get  all  he  can  from  the  context,  and,  when  he 
has  done  his  best  to  extract  meaning  from  the  paragraph,  to  learn 
to  recognize  which  word  is  troubling  him.  He  should  be  encour- 
aged, when  reading  aloud,  to  substitute  a  known  synonym  for  any 
word  he  can  not  pronounce,  so  as  not  to  spoil  the  listener's  pleasure. 
Later,  the  word  he  did  not  know  must  be  studied,  and,  if  possible, 
conquered.  If  the  pupil  is  trained  to  read  with  the  eye  ahead  of 
the  voice,  and  is  not  asked  to  read  expressively  material  never  seen 
before,  excellent  results  in  oral  reading  may  be  expected. 

To  secure  the  very  best  reading,  whether  study  or  expressive, 
specific  aims  must  be  set  up.  (See  pp.  237-240  for  examples  of 
reading  one  page  many  times  with  new  interest  each  time.)  Third- 
grade  children  profit  by  being  conscious  of  their  rating  according  to 
some  standard  test,  (see  p.  293,)  if  the  teacher  gives  them  faith 
in  their  ability  to  reach  the  standard. 

Sentences  and  phrases  should  be  selected  from  the  actual  les- 
sons for  inflection  drills.  Pupils  may  plan  to  emphasize  one  word 
after  the  other,  or  to  inflect  the  whole  in  different  ways,  noting  that 
each  change  in  inflection  (or  emphasis)  causes  a  change  in  thought. 
They  should  then  select  the  rendering  desired  to  express  their  idea 
of  the  meaning.  Try  inflecting  the  Tiny  Bear's  various  exclama- 
tions in  different  ways,  noting  how  few  are  at  all  desirable:  "Some- 
body has  been  sitting  in  my  chair  and  has  broken  it  all  down!" 
Try  emphasizing  first  one  word  after  the  other  in  this  sentence 
taken  from  a  text  often  used  in  third  grade,  "When  his  feelings 
were  stirred  he  used  to  sneeze,"  and  note  that  each  emphasis 
changes  the  thought.  Only  the  context  could  help  one  decide 
which  would  finally  be  best  to  use. 

Phonics  becomes  an  especially  valuable  aid  in  the  independent 
pronouncing  of  words.  To  the  work  outlined  earlier  should  now 
be  added:  The  other  needed  vowel  sounds,  with  their  names;  the 
few  remaining  consonant  sounds,  and  certain  digraphs  and  diph- 
thongs; greater  ease  in  rapid  blending;  a  working  knowledge  of, 
but  not  necessarily  a  statement  of,  principles  of  syllabication  and 
of  syllable  pronunciation,  and  the  placing  of  accent,  as  indicated 
by  the  teacher,  in  word  lists. 

What  results  the  third-grade  teacher  should  secure. — Children  as  a 
grade  should  love  school,  love  books,  love  to  read,  and  should  have 
grown  steadily  in  eagerness,  enthusiasm,  concentration  of  atten- 
tion, reasoning,  and  in  ethical  judgment.  As  individuals,  each 
must  have  learned  to  do  all  of  which  he  is  capable,  feel  that  his 
efforts  are  recognized,  and  that  his  opinions  are  respected.  Pupils 
should  meet  the  minimum  standard  set  by  whatever  series  of  tests 


86  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

the  local  school  chooses  to  administer,  but  should  have  tried  all 
year  to  attain  one  hundred  per  cent  efficiency. 

A  fewer  number  of  books  will,  naturally,. have  been  read  in 
class,  since  the  material  is  new,  harder,  and  consists  of  larger  classic 
units  than  before.  The  amount  of  individual  or  home  reading 
should  have  increased,  but  should  not  have  degenerated  in  quality. 

Grade  IV. 

In  the  fourth  grade,  as  reading  difficulties  increase,  there  should 
be  ample  time  for  both  silent  and  oral  reading,  with  study  periods 
in  which  the  children  may  be  taught  to  gather  the  central  idea, 
relate  to  it  any  subordinate  ideas,  supplement  the  thought,  and  ac- 
quire increasing  skill  in  gathering  and  holding  thoughts.  (See 
third-grade  suggestions  for  methods  of  work.)  What  the  second 
grade  did  for  the  first,  the  fourth  grade  must  do  for  the  third- 
crystallize,  make  use  of,  and  refine,  all  ability  in  word  calling  and 
in  thinking  there  acquired. 

Silent  Reading. — Pupils  need  to  work  over  and  assimilate  the 
wealth  of  new  material  opening  up  to  them  because  of  their  present 
control  of  the  mechanical  phases  of  reading,  and  a  school  period 
should  permit  free  discussion  of  all  silent,  appreciative,  or  supple- 
mentary reading.  Constructive  reading  should  be  encouraged, 
and  humor  should  be  freely  introduced.  Up  to  this  time,  children's 
sense  of  humor  has  been. so  different  from  adult  fun  that  it  has  been 
difficult  for  either  side  to  appreciate  what  the  other  saw  of  fun  in 
a  particular  situation.  (Read  Kenneth  Graham's  "Dream  Days" 
and  "A  Golden  Age.")  Children  need  some  sympathetic  training 
in  what  is  real  fun  and  in  the  recognition  of  the  double  meanings 
of  words  which  make  some  riddles,  rebuses,  and  conundrums,  so 
humorous.  Their  childish  sense  of  fun,  characterized  by  seeing 
persons  in  awkward  or  embarrassing  situations,  is  satisfied  by  some, 
of  the  "Robin  Hood"  stories,  and  by  "Pinocchio's"  difficulties. 
Both  books  contain,  however,  adult  humor,  and  it  is  decidedly  in- 
teresting to  watch  pupils  grow  during  the  fourth  year  in  their  ap- 
preciation of  more  and  more  subtle  jokes.  One  teacher's  work 
with  "Pinocchio,"  parts  of  which  were  used  for  silent  reading  and 
parts  of  which  were  used  for  oral  reading  or  dramatization,  brought 
out  the  developing  sense  of  humor  marvelously.  Wholesome  fun 
is  catching,  hence  the  teacher  must  have  a  strong  sense  of  humor, 
or  she  may  work  in  vain  to  secure  it  from  the  children. 

Oral  Reading. — As  said  before,  good  oral  reading  demands  mate- 
rial different  from  that  demanded  by  silent  reading  in  two  particu- 
lars: It  must  be  easier  reading  than  that  which  the  child  can  do  by 


Reading. — Grade  IV. — Aids.  87 

himself,  and  it  must  be  of  a  sort  which  impels  the  reader  to  share 
it — a  bit  of  literature  which,  because  of  its  beauty  in  either  thought 
or  expression,  or  because  of  the  delicious  humor  it  contains,  is 
worth  reading  aloud.* 

Ideals  of  what  oral  reading  should  or  may  be  can  be  best  ac- 
quired by  hearing  some  good  oral  reading  for  about  ten  minutes 
each  day — not  the  same  lesson  the  children  are  to  read,  though  oc- 
casionally that  may  be  wise,  but  some  bit  of  vital,  dramatic  litera- 
ture which  the  teacher  has  practiced  reading  until  she  reads  with 
abandon,  clear  enunciation,  and  vividness.  She  needs  to  put  her- 
self into  the  story  and  often  to  use  large  movements  to  accompany 
the  new  expressions,  since  the  tiny,  suggestive  movements  of  a 
great  artist  would  at  this  stage  portray  little  to  the  pupils.  Ar- 
tistic reading  grows  upon  one  year  by  year,  until  one  finally  gets 
from  the  lifting  of  an  eyebrow  or  the  contracting  of  the  forehead, 
when  done  by  Sara  Bernhardt,  a  whole  volume  of  emotions.  The 
fourth-grade  teacher  must  steer  between  crude  and  over-artistic 
work;  she  must  make  the  meanings  carry  and  the  pictures  clear  to 
her  ten-year-olds,  not  to  an  adult  audience.  "Uncle  Remus" 
stories,  Kipling's  two  "Jungle  Books,"  and  historical  stories,  are 
great  favorites.  (See  Minnesota  Library  List,  and  the  language 
outlines.) 

Aids. — Though  intermediate  teachers  do  use  thought  methods 
in  the  actual  reading  work,  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  rapid 
increase  of  long  and  difficult  words  in  books  used  above  the  third 
grade  demands  very  special  emphasis  on  whatever  means  seem 
wisest  to  insure  easy  control  of  symbols.  Some  of  those  means  are 
phonics,  thought-spelling,  use  of  the  dictionary,  games  with  words 
and  their  meanings,  and  the  memorizing  of  poems  or  short  prose 
selections  to  give  vocabulary.  Professor  Palmer,  in  his  "Self-Cul- 
tivation in  English,"  says  that  a  word  used  three  times  becomes 
the  user's  own.  The  reciting  of  memorized  literature  is  one  of  the 
surest  means  of  fixing  vocabulary.  Composition  work  (see  pp.  30- 
37)  is  also  a  definite  aid  here,  especially  if  the  whole  class  develops 
a  subject  and  the  more  fluent  pupils  contribute  variations  of 
phraseology  which  the  word-poorer  children  may  still  use  when 
all  write  the  story.  In  spite  of  all  these  means,  some  students  will 
still  need  definite  mechanical  drill  on  many  words,  while  all  pupils 
must  be  thus  drilled  on  a  few  words  whose  pronunciation  violates 
known  (to  children)  laws  of  phonics.  (Cough,  hiccough,  dough, 
Greenwich,  and  Beauchamp,  are  examples.) 

*  Jackson's  "Letters  from  a  Cat,"  Warner's  "Camping  Out"  and  "How  I  Killed  a  Bear," 
CrothersVThe  Gentle  Reader,"  are  books  that  compel  the  child  of  8  or  9,  the  boy  of  12  to  14, 
or  the  adult,  respectively,  to  insist  upon  some  one's  hearing  them. 


88  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Some  boys  and  girls  must  still  be  shown  how  to  express  different 
emotions,  and  different  degrees  of  the  same  emotion;  monotones 
occasionally  need  mechanical  imitation  drills  to  give  them  founda- 
tion ideals  of  voice  variation,  after  which  they  may  return  to  thought 
drills  on  different  meanings  as  brought  out  by  different  inflections; 
dramatization  continues  to  prove  valuable  for  this  purpose;  the 
motive  and  the  thought  awaken  interest  and  many  mechanical 
difficulties  cure  themselves. 

Mechanical  skill  may  sometimes  be  a  direct  aid  to  thought  get- 
ting, though  over  fluency  has  been  known  to  hinder  it.  A  study 
of  punctuation  needed  by  fourth-grade  children  will  be  of  definite 
value  both  for  gathering  the  thought  and  for  sharing  it.*  In  this 
grade,  dictionary  work,  (p.  98,  f,)  as  an  aid  to  all  phases  of  En- 
glish, should  be  begun.  Fourth-grade  pupils  should  learn  to  go  to 
the  dictionary  for  pronunciations  and  meanings  to  help  the  reading 
but  should  still  depend  more  on  context  for  meaning  than  upon  a 
dictionary  definition.     Whittier  says  in  his  "Snow  Bound," 

We  minded  that  the  sharpest  ear 
The  buried  brooklet  could  not  hear. 

The  dictionary  will  help  little  if  at  all  on  "minded"  or  "buried" 
unless  the  pupil  supplements  the  thought  and  knows  the  context. 

Seat-work  in  reading  can  be  made  one  of  the  most  valuable  aids 
available,  if  only  the  teacher  gives  her  assignments  sufficient  care. 

What  to  expect  by  the  end  of  the  year. — See  p.  293,  for  several 
standard  tests,  at  least  one  of  which  should  be  given  at  the  begin- 
ning, middle,  and  end  of  the  year. 

Grade  V. 
As  pupils  advance  from  the  primary  to  intermediate  and  thence 
to  grammar  grades,  difficulties  continue  to  arise.  The  vocabulary 
of  good  literature,  and  even  of  the  non-literary  text-book,  is  new 
to  children  not  only  in  form,  but  in  sound  and  in  meaning.  The 
reading  process  must  necessarily  be  delayed  while  pupils  get  basal 
experiences  and  fundamental  information;  learn  enough  of  life  to 
understand  familiar  allusions;  and  exercise  imagination  and  reason- 
ing so  that  words  and  phrases  bring  clear  images  and  have  a  rich 
content.  They  must  also  constantly  cultivate  judgment  in  accept- 
ing facts  and  values  in  what  they  read.  Only  by  this  sort  of  read- 
ing— never  by  mere  word-calling — will  pupils  be  fitted  to  continue 
their  own  education  by  means  of  current  as  well  as  classic  literature 
when  they  have  left  school. 


*  Kvery  teacher  of  fourth  grade  and  above  should  own,  study,  and  follow,  suggestions  made 
by  Clark  in  his  "Interpretation  of  the  Printed  Page,"  or,  his  earlier  book,  "How  to  Teach  Read- 
ing in  the  Public  Schools,"  if  already  owned;  or  any  other  good  guide  to  teaching   reading. 


Reading. — Grade  V. — Silent  Reading.  89 

Many  teachers  find  in  use  in  their  schools,  readers  that  are  too 
hard  for  their  grades.  If  new  ones  can't  be  bought,  the  teacher 
may  still  do  something,  for  if  the  children  are  encouraged  rather 
than  discouraged,  a  little  mental  stretching  isn't  bad  for  them. 
The  teacher  should  begin  by  carefully  cataloguing  the  lessons  in 
the  reader  according  to  the  amount  of  (a)  action,  (b)  dialogue,  (c) 
material  for  pantomime,  (d)  pictures  to  be  made  in  seat-work,  (e) 
materials  related  to  other  lessons,  (/)  materials  to  suit  the  different 
purposes  for  reading,  (g)  difficult  words  as  to  pronunciation,  (h) 
difficult  words  as  to  meaning,  (?)  humor,  (J)  emotions  such  as  loy- 
alty, truth,  courage,  and  persistence,  and  (k)  lessons  fitted  for  only 
silent  reading  and  those  good  for  oral  reading. 

Having  done  this,  the  teacher  should  choose  lessons  which  he 
knows  will  be  the  easiest  or  the  most  attractive  for  a  week  or  two, 
during  which  time  he  should  be  diagnosing  and  keeping  record  of 
the  difficulties  of  both  the  individuals  and  of  the  class  as  a  whole. 
He  may  now  begin  work  on  the  most  vital  need  of  the  majority, 
concentrating  for  a  few  minutes  daily  on  that  until  the  pupils 
themselves  recognize  their  gain. 

Even  backward  boys  have  been  seen  to  glow  with  pride  over  their  gain  of 
no  more  than  one  minute  in  a  week,  in  their  time  of  silently  reading  a  given 
amount.  One  lad,  fearing  that  his  teacher  hadn't  remarked  it,  asked,  "Have  you 
noticed  that  I  never  say  stawmp  any  more  for  stamp?" — glad  to  be  gaining  in 
the  pronunciation  of  a  single  word. 

As  soon  as  the  pupils  begin  to  be  self-critical  of  an  error,  the 
teacher  may  safely  begin  work  on  the  next  greatest  difficulty. 
Seat-work  of  kinds  to  help  the  various  errors  may  be  consciously 
selected.  Possibly  the  suggestions  for  the  teaching  of  a  simple 
poem,  "The  Coast  Guard,"  may  help  to  illustrate  some  of  the 
points  mentioned.     (See  pp.  241-245.) 

Silent  Reading. — (See  language  outlines  for  the  kinds  of  reading 
matter  many  enjoy  at  this  age).  The  teacher  must  not  depend, 
however,  on  any  general  list,  but  must  quickly  learn  the  tastes  and 
interests  of  his  pupils.  The  "reading  habit"  should  again  be  defi- 
nitely worked  for,  if  seen  to  be  at  all  on  the  wane.  The  room  library 
of  thirty  to  fifty  books  chosen  to  suit  individual  abilities  and  inter- 
ests, with  a  set  period  for  reporting  upon  progress  in  reading  and 
sharing  the  pleasures  of  the  book  with  others,  will  revive  or  keep 
alive  interest  in  home  reading. 

The  need  of  children's  getting  the  gist  of,  the  exact  meaning  of, 
or  the  points  of  vagueness  in,  the  various  lessons — geography,  his- 
tory, and  arithmetic — will  suggest  to  the  teacher  the  kinds  of  work 
he  should  do  in  the  study-half  of  the  silent-reading  lesson.     These 


90  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

texts  may  even  be  used  occasionally  for  learning  to  recognize  main 
and  subordinate  points  and  their  interrelation,  for  judging  of  val- 
ues, and  for  recognizing  fallacies  or  irrationalities;  for  learning  to 
supplement  the  thought,  from  one's  own  experience  or  by  consult- 
ing reference  books;  and  for  making  pupils  like  lessons  that  demand 
such  effort. 

Oral  reading  must  be  made  much  of,  since  the  new  danger  is 
that  both  teacher  and  pupils  may  grow  engrossed  with  the  neces- 
sary thought-gathering  and  organizing  demanded  by  all  lessons. 
Children  must  still  love  to  dramatize,  to  share  their  most  enjoyed 
books,  and  to  keep  up  their  power  to  read  clearly,  fluently,  and 
accurately.  They  must  stand  well,  read  to  a  sympathetic  audi- 
ence, and  use  good  tones  and  correct  pronunciation.  They  must 
feel  and  show  interest  in  what  they  are  doing,  confidence  in  their 
ability  to  convey  the  thought,  and  self-possession  before  the  audi- 
ence. This  isn't  easy  to  get  at  this  age,  since  it  is  one  of  the  self- 
conscious  periods,  and  so  teachers  must  commend  effort,  and  set 
good  ideals  by  their  own  self-control  and  freedom  in  reading. 

Aids. — Dictionary  work  (p.  98)  should  be  continued;  language 
work,  including  the  listening  to  and  the  telling  of  stories,  will  be  a 
direct  help;  word  drills  outside  of  those  planned  in  connection  with 
dictionary  work  and  spelling  will  not  be  numerous.  Seat- work  in 
all  subjects  may  now  assist  thought  gathering  and  clarifying,  and 
seat-work  in  reading  should  be  of  the  sort  to  secure  more  associa- 
tive thinking,  more  image  making,  and  more  application  of  daily 
experiences  to  those  pictured  in  literature,  or  the  reverse. 

What  to  expect. — Test  pupils  by  standards  selected  more  than 
once  during  the  year,  and  work  to  attain  one  hundred  per  cent 
efficiency  by  the  end  of  the  year. 

Grade  VI. 

Silent  Reading. — If  the  crowded  program  forbids  two  reading 
periods  a  day,  (fully  as  much  needed  above  the  primary  as  in  the 
primary  school,)  then  the  teacher  must  make  the  history  and  geog- 
raphy lessons  serve  a  double  purpose,  for  they  must  be  used  for 
study-reading  lessons  where  children  learn  to  gather  facts,  to  get 
the  gist  of  an  argument,  to  test  the  soundness  of  ideas,  and  to  learn 
how  to  find  desired  information  quickly,  through  use  of  indices, 
tables  of  contents,  chapter  headings,  etc. 

The  necessity  for  slowness  and  thoroughness  in  study-reading 
must  be  counterbalanced  by  at  least  one  period  a  week  in  extensive 
or  inspirational  reading,  with  almost  no  interruption  for  mechanics, 
so  that  children  get,  what  has  been  said  before,  that  indispensable 


Reading. — Grade  VI. — Oral  Reading.  91 

feeling  for  "sweep,"  for  onward  movement  in  a  story,  regardless  of 
"verbal  no-thoroughfares." 

Many  teachers  continue  the  lower-grade  plan  of  having  children 
read  individual  books  at  home,  reporting  once  a  week  their  prog- 
ress in  the  books  and  sharing  with  their  classmates  bits  that  were 
especially  enjoyed.  Of  course  the  rapid  readers  may  easily  finish 
more  than  one  book  in  the  week,  but  they  give  an  inkling  of  what 
is  in  each  so  that  others  who  like  that  sort  of  reading  will  know 
what  to  choose.  As  one  of  Miss  Lynn's*  characters  says,  the  child 
who  loves  to  read  almost  always  has  another  book  "waiting  and 
holding  out  a  fascinating  promise"  while  yet  the  reader  is  hurrying 
through  the  book  in  hand.  Even  the  slower  readers  in  a  class 
catch  the  epidemic  of  such  love  of  reading.  To  quote  Miss  Lynn's 
child  again,  "There  is  nothing  that  furnishes  greater  promise  of 
continued  satisfaction  in  life  than  to  know  that  whatever  happens 
you  can  always  read.  However  other  interests  may  fluctuate  or 
fail,  there  are  always  books,  and  there  is  always  an  interesting  one 
if  you  only  search  long  enough  for  it.  It  gives  a  sort  of  certainty 
to  life,  and  an  assurance  of  its  continued  likableness,  to  know  that 
there  need  be  no  dull  interstices  in  it.  Games  may  flag,  and  broth- 
ers and  sisters  may  have  moments  of  slightly  damaged  amiability, 
but  entertainment  need  not  pause  while  there  are  still  books  to 
read.  If  there  are  no  new  ones  you  can  always  read  David  Cop- 
perfield  again." 

A  book  enjoyed  by  several  in  a  class  may  be  "cut"  and  the 
parts  read  by  the  several  children  to  make  an  afternoon's  enter- 
tainment for  the  remainder  of  the  school. 

One  teacherf  planned  a  clever  entertainment  of  parents  and  others  after  this 
fashion:  A  child  was  sitting  in  an  easy  chair  near  her  book-cases.  She  wanted  to 
read,  but  did  not  know  which  of  her  many  favorites  to  choose.  As  she  pondered 
over  it,  thinking  of  one  book  after  the  other,  she  fell  asleep  and  "dreamed." 
Her  dreams  were  then  enacted  by  all  the  other  pupils  of  the  grade,  who  came  for- 
ward singly  or  in  groups  and  gave  the  gist  of  one  book,  dramatized  a  scene  from 
another,  recited  portions  of  others,  or  read  parts  of  others,  telling  briefly  the  con- 
nections between  parts  read.  When  all  the  books  the  dreamer  most  loved  (that 
is,  the  books  read  by  individuals  in  the  grade  for  two  or  three  months)  had  passed 
in  review  before  her,  she  awoke,  and,  with  a  caressing  gesture  for  all  her  books, 
she  declared  she  "loved  every  one  the  best." 

Oral  Reading. — If  but  one  short  period  can  be  given  to  school 

reading,  it  must  be  devoted  to  teaching  pupils  how  to  enjoy  good 

literature  and  how  to  give  others  pleasure  through  their  good  oral 

reading.     If  pupils  feel  strongly  enough  the  desire  to  give  to  others, 

the  necessary  incidental  and  supplementary  mechanical  drills  on 

enunciation,  local  pronunciations,  inflection,  control  of  pitch,  etc., 

will  be  sought  rather  than  avoided  by  pupils.     Even  two  minutes 

*  "A  Stepdaughter  of  the  Prairie."  Margaret  Lynn. 
+  Miss  Harriet  Z.  Campbell,  Bowling  Green,  Ohio. 


92  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

a  day  will  accomplish  appreciable  growth,  and  five  minutes  a  day 
will  do  wonders  by  the  end  of  the  year.  The  plan  described  under 
silent  reading  makes  a  good  motive  for  effort  in  oral  reading  too. 

Aids. — (See  sixth-grade  language  outline,  and  the  reading  out- 
lines for  lower  grades.)  Since  this  is  another  period  of  rapid  vocab- 
ulary increase,  pupils  must  be  urged  to  conquer  the  pronunciation 
of  new  words  as  they  read,  so  that  they  may  give  pleasure  to  the 
listeners.  They  should  be  made  to  feel  that  words  are  tools,  and 
that  fluency  in  word  calling  is  to  be  likened  to  well-sharpened  tools, 
with  which  the  best  work  can  be  done.  Phonics,  if  still  needed, 
spelling,  and  dictionary  work,  may  become  the  main  aids  to  this 
refinement  of  pronunciation  and  quick  recognition  of  symbols. 
Punctuation-marks,  as  symbols  of  variations  in  thought,  may  well 
be  studied  more  carefully  than  before.  Likewise,  the  different  sig- 
nificance of  the  various  correlative,  adversative,  and  subordinate 
connectives,  should  be  noted  as  an  aid  to  interpretation  of  thought 
and  to  correct  inflection  in  giving  the  thought. 

Original  dramatization  of  material  should  be  begun  in  sixth 
grade.  The  writer  secured  rather  surprising  results  with  a  weak 
class  in  their  changing  of  Hawthorne's  descriptive  story,  "Old 
Esther  Dudley,"  to  dramatic  form.  The  vocabulary,  which  seemed 
an  insurmountable  difficulty  at  the  first  reading  of  the  story,  was 
so  often  gone  over  as  different  pupils  employed  it  in  their  trial 
speeches  of  the  different  characters,  that,  by  the  time  pupils  were 
ready  to  assign  parts  and  prepare  to  act  and  speak  these  parts,  not 
a  dozen  words  in  the  whole  play  had  to  be  drilled  upon.  It  proved 
again  for  many  teachers  that  securing  the  larger  end  will  in  general 
conquer  the  smaller,  and  that  teachers  need  to  give  larger  motives 
than  those  ordinarily  proposed. 

To  aid  silent  reading,  nothing  is  better  than  reference  reading 
for  a  specific  purpose,  such,  for  example,  as  was  done  in  1915  by 
the  sixth-grade  pupils  of  the  Ethical  Culture  School  in  their  plan 
for  their  festival,  "America  the  Wonderland."*  The  interrelated 
material  of  geography,  history,  and  literature,  can  be  utilized  to 
great  advantage,  and  the  study  periods  should  be  making  pupils 
steadily  stronger  in  their  grasp  of  the  central  idea  and  the  relation 
to  it  of  necessary  details.  The  dictionary  habit  can  be  about 
"fixed"  in  this  grade.     (See  pp.  98-104.) 

What  to  expect. — As  in  grades  below,  some  standard  tests  should 
be  given  several  times  during  the  year,  and  effort  put  forth  to  make 
the  poorest  pupils  reach  the  minimum  and  the  best  to  attain  one 
hundred  per  cent  proficiency. 

*  Book  by  this  name,  published  by  the  Ethical  Culture  School,  New  York  City,  60  cents. 


Reading. — Grade  VII.  93 

Grade  VII. 

Whatever  privilege  may  be  accorded  to  the  primary  teacher  in 
the  use  of  symbol  methods,  no  such  favor  can  be  granted  to  upper- 
grade  teachers.  Thought  methods,  and  only  thought  methods, 
will  serve  their  need.  Children  must  be  fitted  to  read  for  different 
purposes  in  different  ways,*  just  as  adults  do;  that  is: 

1.  To  secure  all  the  facts  from  the  page,  as  when  reading  a  guide-book  before 
going  to  visit  some  point  of  interest,  or  when  reading  a  prospectus  of  some 
business  in  which  one  wishes  to  invest. 

2.  To  get  only  the  important  facts,  as  one  does  from  his  daily  newspaper. 

3.  To  get  the  trend  of  thought  in  an  article;  for  illustration,  to  see  whether  a 
certain  congressman  does  or  does  not  favor  forest  conservation,  and  hence  what 
will  be  done  for  our  state. 

4.  To  learn  the  arguments  advanced,  requiring  ability  to  pick  out  main 
points  and  see  their  interrelation,  as  in  studying  the  President's  position  as  to 
internationalism,  for  example. 

5.  To  discover  some  very  definite  and  desired  facts  such  as  the  iron-ore 
output  from  the  mines  of  Ely,  during  some  one  year. 

6.  To  find  whether  certain  facts  are  present  or  not,  as  one  does  when  he  is  to 
write  a  paper  on  "The  Indians  in  this  part  of  Minnesota"  and  goes  to  the  library 
to  select  several  books  to  be  taken  home  for  study. 

7.  To  satisfy  one's  longings,  one's  ambitions,  desires,  or  emotions — a  situa- 
tion in  which  facts  are  purely  incidental  and  scarcely  even  remembered;  one 
reads  for  the  inspiration  he  gets  from  the  inner  spirit  of  the  story,  or  for  the  rest 
he  gets  from  the  fun  that's  there.  This  demands  (1)  a  wide  experience,  so  that 
the  imagination  may  have  full  play;  and  (2)  eye-fluency  in  the  recognition  of 
symbols.     (Children  can  be  taught  to  let  the  eye  read  ahead  of  the  voice). 

8.  To  share  with  others  thoughts  that  have  delighted  the  reader.  This  re- 
quires power  in  oral  expression,  for  "if  we  are  to  fire  the  soul  through  the  ear, 
we  must  control  the  instrument,"  the  voice,  with  its  possibilities  for  varying 
intonation,  inflection,  pitch,  and  force. 

The  school,  then,  must  provide  opportunity  for  many  sorts  of 
reading:  for  study-reading  or  intensive  reading;  for  exercise  in  be- 
ing "a  judicious  skipper";  for  rapid  or  extensive  reading,  which 
leads,  first,  to  the  reading  habit,  and,  second,  to  discrimination  in 
selection;  and,  finally,  for  reading  to  be  shared  with  others.  This 
last  demands  two  things: 

1.  Evident  appreciation  of  the  thought — having  something  to  give  (as  in  language) . 

2.  Evident  desire  to  give  the  thought  to  others,  hence  a  desire  (and  its  attendant 

result) — 

(a)  To  read  distinctly  (to  be  heard) — good  enunciation — not  mumbling. 

(b)  To  read  smoothly   (to  be  enjoyed) — good  pronunciation — not  stumbling  and  miscalling 

words. 

(c)  To  read  to  make  the  thought  carry   (to  be  understood) — good  grouping  or  phrasing — 

recognizing  main  idea — true  emphasis  and  inflection — and  noting  contrasts — correct 
time — collateral  thinking — force — desire  to  reach  audience. 

(d)  To  read  to  please  hearers — correct  pitch  (no  strain).     Correct  tone  quality  (appreciation.) 

(e)  Read  to  arouse  hearers  to  action — Emotion. 

*  Said  in  1902  in  the  New  York  Teachers  Monograph,  by  Dr.  F.  E.  Spaulding. 


94  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

The  debate  always  comes,  Will  emphasis  on  thought  gathering 
bring  good  thought  giving,  or  must  children  acquire  (consciously  or 
unconsciously)  some  of  the  technique  of  good  expression?  The 
writer  believes  that  children  of  this  age  crave  some  knowledge  of 
"How  to  say  it" — some  of  the  principles  of  correct  reading.  She 
would  therefore  advocate  the  teacher's  study  of  S.  H.  Clark's 
methods,  and  the  use  of  such  of  them  as  the  class  needs.  Clark 
believes  that  a  thorough  grasp  of  the  central  thought,  an  imagina- 
tion that  builds  vivid  pictures,  a  careful  study  of  shades  of  meaning 
as  expressed  by  single,  often  obscure,  words,  and  the  arousal  of 
active  rather  than  passive  emotions  in  pupils,  will  secure  good  oral 
expression.  The  idea  of  some  practice  on  placing  emphasis,  on 
making  pauses,  and  on  changing  inflections,  pitch,  quality,  time, 
and  force,  in  connection  with  worth-while  selections,  does  not  op- 
pose the  thought  method  in  upper  grades  any  more  than  word 
drills  oppose  thought  work  in  primary  grades. 

Silent  Reading,  as  said  in  earlier  grades,  can  be  secured  from 
study-reading  of  other  lessons,  reference  reading,  preparation  of 
some  themes  in  composition,  and  in  still  further  use  of  home  or 
library  reading.  If  the  reading  habit  has  been  formed,  the  teacher 
may  now  influence  the  children's  individual  tastes  in  their  selection 
of  what  to  read.  His  own  knowledge  of  books  must  be  broad,  for 
he  will  have  pupils  who  are  already  interested  in  science,  art, 
music,  poetry,  and  essays.  He  must  know  a  little  of  every  line, 
and  be  ready  to  go  deeper  into  whatever  fields  he  finds  appealing 
to  the  children.  Many  pupils  will  be  forming  their  life  foundations 
in  reading  during  the  seventh  and  eighth  years,  and  need  to  know 
how  to  find  what  they  want  in  a  library,  as  well  as  to  know  that 
such  good  books  as  the  teacher  reads  or  has  on  his  desk  are  avail- 
able. Dickens,  Ruskin,  Plutarch,  Tennyson,  Prescott,  Thackeray, 
Victor  Hugo,  Irving,  Warner,  are  a  few  of  the  authors  that  seventh- 
grade  pupils  have  been  known  to  devour.  Of  course  some  students 
are  still  fond  of  easy  fiction,  and  if  good  fiction  is  read,  that  is  better 
than  not  reading  at  all;  but  all  fiction,  like  all  play,  makes  Jack  (or 
Jill)  a  dull  child,'  not  able  to  crack  the  harder  nuts  of  literature  to 
be  met  in  high  school  and  in  life. 

As  suggested  under  language  (which  outline  should  have  been 
read),  a  few  children  will  be  looking  towards  a  selection  of  their 
life-work,  and  teachers  must  know  about  available  literature  on 
the  various  vocations.  Current  events  should  be  emphasized  some- 
what more  than  before,  though  some  study  in  current  events 
should  have  been  made  from  third  grade  up.  Exercises  on  how  to 
read  newspapers  and  magazines  have  proved  most  valuable. 


Reading. — Grade  VIII.  95 

Oral  Reading. — The  daily  half  hour  devoted  to  oral  reading  must 
continue  to  emphasize  good  posture,  voice,  intonation,  articulation, 
and  pronunciation,  as  aids  in  pleasing  the  audience.  The  teacher 
must  guard  against  taking  too  much  time  for  literary  analysis  and 
other  discussion  of  the  thought,  remembering  that  each  pupil 
should  read  aloud  at  least  a  little  every  day,  and  that  a  few  pupils 
should  each  day  do  a  piece  of  sustained  reading  which  would  de- 
mand different  styles  of  oral  reading  and  give  practice  in  flexibility 
of  voice  and  of  thought  expression. 

Aids. — Language  work,  study-work  in  all  lessons,  dictionary 
work  (p.  98),  and  drill  exercises  on  most  needed  points,  are  the 
main  aids  to  good  reading,  besides  those  implied  in  the  introduc- 
tory paragraph  of  this  grade's  outline. 

Expect  pupils  to  reach  the  common  standard  of  seventh-grade 
pupils  according  to  the  test  agreed  upon  as  best  suited  to  this 
grade.     (See  pp.  292-295.) 

Grade  VIII. 

All  the  work  of  the  lower  grades  should  here  culminate  in  the 
final  elementary  mastery  of  the  reading  art.  The  high-school  work 
in  Literature  is  usually  devoted  to  a  study  of  style,  figurative 
speech,  and  literary  allusions,  so  that  comparatively  little  reading 
(either  oral  or  extensive  silent  reading)  is  definitely  motivated 
there.  Pupils  who  have  already  acquired  the  reading  habit  and 
good  foundation  tastes,  keep  up  their  outside-of-school  reading  of 
their  own  initiative;  but  pupils  who  haven't  the  reading  habit 
fixed,  grow  to  feel  that  it  isn't  worth  the  effort,  if  to  read  properly 
one  has  to  look  up  every  word,  cross  reference,  and  figure  of  speech, 
spending  several  days  on  a  dozen  lines  of  some  poem.  Therefore 
must  eighth-grade  teachers  of  reading  know  the  individual  status 
of  each  pupil  and  give  to  each  what  he  most  needs — love  of  books, 
fluency  in  eye-reading,  ability  to  get  the  central  idea,  to  carry  a 
succession  of  ideas,  power  quickly  to  note  the  significance  of  a 
comma  in  changing  the  thought,  or  ability  to  read  aloud  pleasingly. 
Some  pupils  need  further  training  in  newspaper  and  magazine  read- 
ing, since  they  will  do  most  of  their  reading  in  current  literature 
and  none  can  lose  by  such  practice.  Others  need  to  learn  how  to 
enjoy  century-old  classics.  That  pupils  may  read  after  leaving 
school,  they  must  have  learned  (1)  how  to  enjoy  literature  by  get- 
ting clear  pictures  from  words,  by  reading  their  own  experiences  into 
the  book — that  is,  by  reading  between  the  lines — and  by  keeping 
actively  receptive  to  new  ideas  and  inspiring  thoughts;  (2)  to  know 
how  to  get  an  organized  body  of  facts  together  after  having  exer- 


96  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

cised  judgment  in  their  selection,  from  personal  information  and 
books  or  magazines;  and  (3)  to  know  enough  of  the  practical  tech- 
nique of  oral  expression  to  make  others  enjoy  what  the  reader  does. 
These  three  phases  of  reading  must  be  "rounded  up"  in  this  last 
year  of  the  elementary  school,  and  pupils  helped  to  meet  the  stand- 
ard tests  agreed  upon. 

Silent  Reading. — Besides  the  contributions  from  outside  reading 
made  in  the  supplementing  of  all  lessons,  pupils  should  be  encour- 
aged to  make  a  study  of  certain  authors,  learning  by  "extensive" 
reading  of  several  books  by  the  same  author,  his  characteristics  of 
plot,  style,  etc.  Biographies  become  interesting,  particularly  when 
they  are  well  written,  as  are  many  biographies  of  Robert  Louis 
Stevenson,  and  is  Palmer's  "Life  of  Alice  Freeman  Palmer."  This 
study  of  authors  and  their  works  must  not  be  exhaustive,  but  should 
satisfy  the  special  need  of  the  pupil,  as  said  above.  The  work  done 
should  rather  make  the  pupil  look  forward  to  intensive  study  later, 
either  in  high  school  or  in  the  leisure  of  adult  life,  than  to  make 
him  feel  that  he  has  gotten  all  there  is  to  get  from  the  book  or 
author. 

Too  much  reading  of  light  fiction  tends  toward  the  reading  of  a 
book  but  once,  and  should  be  discouraged,  by  substituting  other 
books  and  showing  pupils  the  inexhaustible  resources  of  books 
which  the  world  has  long  found  good — Hawthorne,  George  Eliot, 
Dickens,  Shakespeare,  etc.  Though  light  fiction  has  its  recreative 
function  for  adults,  it  is  not  the  sort  of  reading  to  be  too  early  made 
habitual.  The  teacher  must  use  every  possible  means  to  help 
pupils  get  a  big  outlook  on  the  making  of  a  living  and  on  the  living 
of  a  full,  rich  life.  Lives  of  truly  great  men,  stories  of  the  great 
industries,  and  really  great  books,  should  be  the  only  reading  en- 
couraged. Fun  must  not  be  omitted,  but  it,  too,  must  be  "big" 
fun;  not  the  sort  which  enjoys  another  creature's  discomfiture,  but 
fun  such  as  may  be  found  in  the  works  of  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes, 
John  Kendrick  Bangs,  Samuel  Crothers,  Charles  Dudley  Warner, 
and  dozens  of  others  of  our  humorists  who  have  no  "sting"  to  their 
fun.  (Kenneth  Graham  and  Margaret  Lynn  will  help  teachers 
to  realize  what  children  like.) 

Oral  Reading. — Original  dramatizations  of  stories  like  "Rip  Van 
Winkle,"  "Ivanhoe,"  "The  Man  Without  a  Country,"  "Adam 
Bede,"  "The  Vicar  of  Wakefield,"  Van  Dyke's  "The  First  Christ- 
mas Tree,"  and  "Story  of  the  Other  Wise  Man,"  are  excellent 
preparation  for  the  giving  of  all  or  of  parts  of  several  of  Shakes- 
peare's dramas  in  the  author's  exact  words.  A  finished  result 
(though  necessary  to  work  for  as  a  motive  for  careful  organization 


Reading. — Grade  VIII.— Constructive  Reading.  97 

of  parts,  for  practice  in  reading,  and  for  becoming  "line  perfect") 
is  not  the  most  valuable  part  of  such  work;  the  greatest  value  lies 
in  the  developed  power  of  the  pupils  to  get  out  of  their  reading, 
both  silent  and  oral,  the  three  essentials  named  above,  and  to  learn 
the  lessons  which  all  group  effort  teaches. 

Constructive  Reading. — Expressive  reading,  artistic  reading,  in- 
terpretative reading,  are  all  different  names  given  to  what  is  the 
new  line  of  conscious  effort  in  eighth  grade  (prepared  for,  however, 
throughout  the  lower  grades).  It  is  a  power  to  be  explained  rather 
than  defined,  to  be  "caught"  from  a  teacher  rather  than  "taught" 
by  him.  As  Mabie  says,  it  can  be  cultivated,  though  it  is  a  "gift" 
to  some.  Whether  doing  silent  or  oral  work,  the  constructive 
reader  interprets  an  author  through  his  own  experiences,  through 
an  analysis  of  his  own  emotions  and  intellectual  reactions,  and 
reads  between  the  lines  his  own  philosophy  of  life.  If  that  philoso- 
phy is  big  and  optimistic  and  generous,  well  for  the  reader!  And 
well  for  his  hearers  (if  he  reads  aloud) !  Such  reading  trains  the 
mind,  stimulates  imagination,  makes  delicate  discriminations  pos- 
sible, deepens  the  nature,  and  stores  up  for  the  individual  a  wealth 
of  which  he  can  never  in  life  be  robbed.  Such  reading  destroys 
provincialism  and  prevents  impulsive  and  crude  even  if  well  meant 
reactions;  makes  for  "culture"  in  the  finest  sense  of  the  word, 
since,  vicariously,  the  reader  has  learned  just  how  others  feel  and 
act  in  given  situations,  and  is  able  in  most  delicate  ways  to  show 
his  complete  understanding  of  people  in  every  walk  of  life,  and  in 
every  mood.  This  is  certainly  a  kind  of  reading  that  is  worth 
cultivating.  If  a  teacher  brings  to  school  and  shares  with  pupils 
bits  which  he  has  gleaned  from  his  reading,  if  he  and  the  pupils 
keep  a  note-book  (or  begin  a  card  catalogue)  of  quotations  from 
books  read,  with  date  of  first  reading,  and  page  where  the  quotation 
is  found,  a  good  start  will  be  made  on  the  road  to  constructive  read- 
ing.    Of  course  it  doesn't  end  with  the  eighth  grade. 

When  students  read  aloud,  attempting  to  show  others  the  fun, 
the  philosophy,  or  the  information,  to  be  seen  in  a  given  selection, 
more  "finished"  modes  of  expression  are  desired.  To  help  these, 
students  should  hear  readers  of  ability  who  make  few,  but  telling, 
gestures  to  convey  their  ideas.  If  possible,  the  teacher  should  tell 
pupils  what  to  look  for  in  some  good  actor,  go  with  the  entire  class 
to  the  play,  and  then  discuss  it  later.  (It  would  pay  a  school  to 
give  pupils  just  such  opportunities,  but  a-t  present  this  isn't  the 
fashion.  The  pupils  might,  however,  by  entertainments  of  their 
own,  have  a  fund  for  such  use.)  Forbes  Robertson's  interpretation 
of  Hamlet  was  just  such  an  opportunity  to  some  pupils  last  year. 


98  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Although  pupils  of  eighth-grade  age  can't  appreciate  nor  by  any 
means  imitate  all  the  finesse  of  an  artistic  reader,  they  are  impelled 
in  the  right  direction,  or  at  least  receive  an  inclination  away  from 
uncouth  or  boisterous  display  of  emotion,  such  as  Hamlet  solicited 
his  "players"  to  avoid.  In  a  college  or  normal-school  town, 
eighth-grade  teachers  can  usually  secure  the  help  of  the  head  of 
the  Dramatic  Department  in  the  school,  to  read  something  slightly 
above  the  pupils  in  so  artistic  a  way  as  to  convey  to  them  the 
beauty  and  worth  of  fine  interpretative  reading. 

Aids.— (See  eighth-grade  language  outline  and  preceding  grade 
reading  outlines.)  Work  with  the  dictionary  should  now  point  out 
this  book's  many  values  and  how  it  may  be  used  for  almost  every 
need.  Foreign  derivatives,  with  the  meanings  of  their  roots,  pre- 
fixes, and  suffixes,  may  be  studied  as  a  direct  aid  to  vocabulary 
increase  and  classification. 

DICTIONARY  WORK  FOR  GRADES  IV  TO  VIII. 

I.  Handling  the  dictionary  (or  any  large  book). 

A.  How  treat — 

1.  When  new. 

a.  Hold  so  it  rests  on  its  binding  and  gently  let  it  fall  open.      Press 

gently  up  and  down. 

b.  Open  at  gradually  shorter  distances  and  repeat  the  pressing,   until 

it  has  been  done  at  about  every  20  pages,  to  prevent  any  sudden 
strain  on  back. 

2.  When  opening  and  closing.     3.  When  turning  pages. 

B.  How  cover:  (1)  For  temporary  use;  (2)  for  permanent  use;    (3)    keeping 

the  cover  clean. 

II.  What  to  know  about  dictionaries. 

A.  Their  purpose.     (Study  title  page  as  one  means  of  knowing  this). 

1.  To  give  correct  spelling  of  words.     2.  To  give  correct  pronunciation  of 

3.  To  give  meaning  of  words.  [words. 

a.  By  definitions.  c.   By  discriminating  synonyms. 

b.  By  derivations  and  history,     d.  By  illustrations  of  literary  usage. 

4.  To  give  miscellaneous  information. 

B.  Divisions  of  the  book. 

1.  The  body — the  main  part. 

2.  Introduction   and   supplement — comparatively  small   portions  of    the 

dictionary,  but  very  valuable.     (See  topic  III  F.) 

C.  The  reliability  of  the  dictionary. 

1.  Its  evolution — to  be  made  more  or  less  elaborate  as  time  and  interest 

warrant,  but,  in  any  case,  to  show  how  many  people  have  to  work  on 
a  dictionary,  how  long  a  preparation  is  required,  how  the  results 
must  necessarily  be  fallible,  and  yet  how  very  trustworthy  the  book  is. 

2.  The  accepted  authorities. 

a.  Century.        c.  Webster — International,   replacing   Unabridged. 

b.  Standard.      d.  Worcester. 

(School  editions  of  the  last  three  dictionaries  arc  published.) 


Dictionary  Work. — Locating  Words.  99 

III.  Learning  to  use  the  dictionary. 

Note  on  General  Method:  If  children  have  never  had  similar  lessons,  begin  these  in  any 
grade,  but  adapt  method  to  the  age  of  the  pupils.  The  following  plans  and  devices  are  meant  to 
begin  in  4th  grade  and  to  continue  through  6th,  or  longer,  if  necessary.  It  is  very  desirable  that 
each  child  own  or  have  the  use  of  a  dictionary,  though  a  live  teacher  can,  at  a  sacrifice  of  time,  get 
along  with  as  few  as  two  books,  provided  they  belong  to  the  school  and  can  be  justly  loaned  to 
all  the  pupils  in  turn.  If  the  school  has  the  use  of  sufficient  dictionaries,  these  exercises  may  well 
constitute  a  three-  to  five-minute  exercise  daily,  for  all;  if  not.  the  school  may  be  divided  into 
necessary   groups,    each   group    working    in    one — or,  at  different    times,  in  all — of  several  ways: 

(1)  two  pupils  in  one  seat,  alternating    in    following  and  observing  the  other  follow  directions; 

(2)  small  groups  of  10  or  12  taken  each  day,  thus  giving  each  child  a  chance  every  third  or  fourth 
day;  (3)  have  work  not  requiring  dictionary  paralleling  that  needing  the  book,  so  all  may  have 
something  to  do  during  each  exercise;  (4)  make  the  process  progressive,  letting  the  two  children 
(if  only  two  dictionaries  are  available)  who  had  the  book-lesson  this  morning,  pass  on  the  lesson 
to  two  more,  at  some  convenient  study-hour,  and  as  a  reward  for  good  work  on  the  part  of  all 
four  pupils  concerned.  Continue  at  different  intervals  in  the  day,  if  wise  and  possible,  so  that 
any  other  two  are  prepared  to  continue  the  work  on  the  following  day.  It  is  also  a  great  conven- 
ience to  have  all  books  being  used  of  the  same  make  and  edition,  but  the  teacher  can  look  up 
words  in  several  books  if  necessary,  rather  than  not  to  give  the  work  at  all,  though  the  district 
would  do  well  to  weigh  carefully  the  relative  value  of  the  teacher's  time  and  energy  spent  in  this 
way  against  the  cost  of  a  few  dictionaries.  (+  D  means,  use  the  dictionary;  —  D  means,  work 
to  be  done  without  a  dictionary.) 

A.  Locating  words  in  the  dictionary — 

1.  By  knowing  the  location  of  the  letters  in  the  dictionary, 
-f-  D.        a.  "Guide-posts"  located. 

1.  M,  in  middle  of  book. 

2.  D,  half  way  between  M  and  title  page. 

3.  S,  half  way  between  M  and  end. 

4.  A,  very  short  distance  from  title  page. 

a.  Count  pages  in  introduction. 

b.  Note  thickness  with  fingers;  with  eye. 

5.  Z,  about  twice  as  far  from  end  as  A  is  from    beginning  in 

school  dictionaries.     Test  for  own  book.      X,  Y,  Z,  each  so 
little  space  that  all  may  be  learned  as  Z. 

b.  Practice  opening  at  each  guide-post  after  it  is  learned. 

c.  Recognizing  place  of  other  letters  of  alphabet  in  relation  to  guide- 

posts. 

2.  By  knowing  the  value  of  the  catch-words  at  the  top  of  the  pages. 

(Have  pupils  notice  the  catch-words  at  several  openings  and   where 
else  these  words  occur  on  the  pages.     Lead  them  to  feel  the  need  of 
arranging  words  alphabetically  with  ease,  and  recognizing  quickly 
the  place  of  one  word  in  relation  to  others.) 
Devices  to  use: 

a.  Arranging  words  in  alphabetical  order — 

1.  By  first  letters  only  (initials  all  different). 

—  D.  a.   Children's  names — given  and  surnames. 

b.  Ten  cities,  rivers,  etc.,  from  geography. 

c.  Ten  men,  places,  etc.,  from  history  lesson. 

d.  Ten   things   seen   in   the   schoolroom,   found   in   the   kitchen, 

used  in  the  dining-room,  living-room,  etc. 

e.  Toys,  things  seen  on  way  to  school,  Christmas  gifts  received. 

f.  Objects  to  be  seen  on  looking  from  a  window,  going  on  an 

errand  to  another  grade,  at  recess,  etc. 

2.  By  the  remaining  letters  of  the  words  when  initials  are  alike. 

a.   Children's  full  names. 

1.  For  the  teacher's  register,  e.  g. 

2.  For  list  to  be  put  on  blackboard  or  big  cardboard  to 

be  used  in  some  game  or  in  a  device  for  keeping 
records  of  each  child's  attainment,  etc. 
3.   By  grades,  or  classes,  or  rows. 


100  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

b.  All    hard    words    found    in    reading-lesson,    arranged    alpha- 

betically, so  list  of  all  can  be  easily  checked  in  recitation; 
also  so  class  can  quickly  check  how  many  had  same  words, 
so  that  the  probable  relative  difficulty  can  be  noted. 

c.  Spelling-lesson   rearranged   alphabetically    (a   good    review,    a 

careful  looking  at  all  letters,  hence  an  aid  to  study). 

d.  Names  of  children's  cousins  or  other  relatives. 

e.  Places  visited. 

f.  Places  to  be  passed  in  going  from  Chicago  to  New  Orleans  by 

Illinois  Central;  from  St.  Louis  to  Los  Angeles  by  Southern 
Pacific;  from  Duluth  to  Toronto  by  lake  steamer;  etc. 

g.  Names  of  school  subjects. 

h.  List  of  a  day's  different  activities, 
i.   Months  of  the  year. 
j.  Noted  people  born  in  February. 

k.  Each  child    to    make  up  a  miscellaneous  list  of  ten,  twelve 
etc.,  words  for  others  to  rearrange. 

1.  Timed  by  the  clock. 

2.  Ranked  in  order  of  finishing.       Have  papers  turned 

face  downward  to  indicate  completion  and  not  to 
be  thereafter  changed;  deduct  $  (or  any  agreed- 
upon  amount)  from  a  student's  rank  for  each 
error,  so  that  speed  may  not  be  placed  above 
accuracy, 
b.  Applying  above  knowledge  to  recognizing  place  of  given  words  in  relation 
to  others. 

1.  Select  from  any  assigned  lesson  three,  five,  or  ten,  words  that  may 

be  found  between  canter  and  reveal,  e.  g. 

2.  Narrow  the  distance  gradually  but  plainly  until  field  is  covered  by 

one  initial;  e.  g.,  words  between  machine  and  mystery. 

3.  Narrow  by  letting  succeeding  letters  guide;  e.  g.,  between  meat  and 

method;  or  between  accent  and  access. 

4.  Teacher  selects  real  catch-words  at  top  of  pages  in  the  dictionary, 

writes  the  extremes  on  the  board,  and  then  writes  a  word  at  a  time 
or  a  brief  list  of  words  for  pupils  to  challenge  as  to  place — 

a.  yes — between  the  words,     b.   no — before  the  words. 

c.  no — after  the  words. 
Vary  by  letting  individual  pupils  prepare  the  words,  or  at  least  the 

list  to  be  challenged. 

5.  Apply  all  this  to  practice  with  the  dictionary.     All  try  to  find  black. 

Let  all  turn  to  the  page  at  which  the  teacher  happens  to  open 
first;  for  example,  the  page  with  bondage  and  bottle  as  catch-words. 
Teacher  then  asks:  Is  black  to  be  found  before,  on,  or  after  this 
page?  Shall  I  turn  to  the  left  or  the  right?  Shall  I  lift  few  pages 
or  many?  About  how  many?  Shall  I  read  all  the  catch-words  as 
I  turn?  (No,  only  the  one  farthest  left,  so  I  may  not  go  too  far. 
Or,  if  turning  to  the  right,  which  word  would  be  better  to  look  at?) 
Tell  me  when  to  stop.  (Teacher  reads  words  aloud  as  she  lifts  the 
pages).     Why  stop  here? 

6.  Let  some  child  take  the  next  word,  letting  all  assist.     Teacher  may 

need  to  ask  some  questions  similar  to  those  in  5  above. 

3.  By  drilling  to  secure  ease  and  independence  in  locating  words. 

Devices  to  use:  Hectograph  several  lists  of  ten  words  in  a  group.  Pass  these 
to  pupils  who  are  ready  to  begin  and  stop  at  a  signal.  Time  pupils  on  finding  one 
word  at  a  time.  Later,  five  words;  then  ten.  Children  write  page  number  at 
the  right  of  each  word. 

a.  Find  opening  only — either  page  number  correct,     b.   Limit  to  exact  page. 

c.   Add  column  and  distance  down  the  page  to  page  location. 

B.  Learning  to  pronounce  words  in  the  dictionary. 

—  D.    1.  Review  and  keep  up  such  phonic  work  as  will  be  needed.     (See  foot- 
notes at  any  opening  of  a  school  dictionary.) 

a.  Vowel  sounds:  (1)  Long;  (2)  short;  (3)  odd;  by  name,  not   by 
markings. 


Dictionary  Work. — Pronouncing  Words.  101 

b.  Consonant  sounds,  also  by  name,  and  not  by   diacritical    marks. 

c.  Ability  to  blend  known  sounds  into  word  or  syllable. 

2.  Master  pronunciation  of  key  words  in  footnote  at  any  opening — 

a.  Of  dictionary  most  to  be  used. 

b.  Of  other  dictionaries  in  room.     c.  Of  any  other  dictionary. 

3.  Acquire  ability  rapidly  to  apply  the  marked  sound  in  a  familiar   word 

to  a  similarly  marked  sound  in  an  unknown  word. 

4.  Place  accent  where  indicated.      Since  the  meanings  of  many  words 

change   with  different  accents,   the  ability   to  notice   accent-marks 
and   to   place   accent   properly  is  necessary   to   acquire.     Metcalf's 
suggestion  for  using  figure  syllables  is  unequaled. 
1'  2  con't'ent  prod'uce  im'press 

1  2'  content'  produce'  impress' 

Practice  placing  accent  in  words  of  several  syllables  by  means  of 
the  1'  2  3,  12  3',  1  2'  3,  12  3  4',  1  2'  3  4,  etc.,  and  incidentally 
learn  the  correct  accent  in  a  number  of  commonly  mispronounced 
words;  for  example,  ex'quisite. 

5.  Learn  to  apply  (even  if  not  to  word)  some  of  the  commoner  rules  of 

pronunciation,  so  that  even  unmarked  words  may  be  readily  pro- 
nounced. The  number  of  rules  to  discover  and  apply,  and  the 
number  of  exceptions  to  be  taught,  must  depend  on  the  age  of  the 
pupils.     The  suggestions  given  below  can  be  used  in  fourth  grade: 

a.  In  contrasting  such  words  as  man  and  mane,  met  and    mete, 

pin  and  pine,  rod  and  rode,  cut  and  cute,  children  recognize 
and  can  apply  the  following  two  rules  of  pronunciation: 

1.  A  vowel  followed  in  a  syllable  by  a  single   consonant  is 

usually  short. 

2.  In  a  syllable,  final  e  preceded  by  a  consonant  and  that 

by  a  single  vowel  is  not  sounded,  but  usually    makes 
the  preceding  vowel  long. 

b.  A  study  of  a  large  number  of  words  or  syllables  containing   two 

vowels  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  in  such  cases  the  first  vowel 
is  usually  long  and  the  second  silent.  Examples:  Loan,  meat, 
rain.     Exceptions  are  numerous,  yet  the  rule  is  often    helpful. 

c.  C  is  sounded  like  5  and  also  like  k;  when? 

Notes  on  Method:  During  a  week  or  two,  reserve  a  blackboard  space  in  which  children  write 
all  the  words  they  chance  to  find  which  contain  c.  Let  this  be  incidental  to  other  work  until  in- 
terest is  aroused  and  the  list  grows  long  enough  to  permit  some  generalizations — perhaps  by  the 
end  of  the  second  week.  At  the  proper  time  take  ten  minutes  to  study  the  words  and  separate  all 
in  which  c  is  sounded  like  k  (hard)  from  those  in  which  it  is  sounded  like  5  (soft).  Then,  for  as- 
signment, let  the  words  in  each  group  be  arranged  in  sub-groups  according  to  the  letter  which 
follows  c;  thus  we  should  have  come,  second,  becoming,  recognition,  sycophant,  etc.,  in  one  group. 
If  all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  not  represented,  let  pupils  search  for  a  few  days,  at  odd  mo- 
ments, for  words  to  supply  the  deficiency.     Examples  of  all  but  six  or  seven  can  be  found. 

Students  are  now  ready  to  make  some  generalizations,  out  of  which  they  may  select  and  com- 
mit such  as  will  be  of  future  help  in  pronunciation.  A  few  are  given  merely  to  suggest  what  may 
be  found:  1.  When  h  follows  c  the  two  letters  unite  to  form  a  digraph,  pronounced  k,  ch,  or  sh, 
in  different  positions.  2.  C  followed  by  k  or  z  in  the  same  syllable  is  silent;  as,  back,  czar.  3. 
C  is  soft  before  e,  i,  and  y,  and  hard  in  all  other  positions. 

After  the  generalizations  have  been  made,  the  students  may  watch  for  exceptions  for  a  week 
or  more.  Perhaps  some  one  will  find  facade,  a  word  from  the  French  always  having  the  c  marked 
soft  because  it  is  so  evidently  a  violation  of  the  rule. 

To  apply  the  principles  deduced,  (1)  lists  of  words  may  be  placed  upon  the  board  for  rapid 
pronunciation;  (2)  lists  of  words  containing  c  may  be  dictated  for  spelling;  (3)  pupils  may  take 
pages  in  their  reader,  geography,  etc.,  and  classify  the  words  into  three  groups,  namely,  (a)  hard 
c  by  rule,  (b)  soft  c  by  rule,  (c)  exceptions. 


102  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

d.  In  a  similar  way,  the  rules  for  the  two  main    sounds  of  g    may 

be  developed,  though  the  exceptions  to  the  rule  that  g  is  soft 
before  e,  i,  and  y,  are  many. 

e.  Study  of  vowels   which   constitute   or  end   unaccented    syllables 

gives  these  rules:  a  is  usually  short  Italian  (idea,  machine); 
e,  o,  and  u,  are  usually  long  (evasion,  locomotive,  accurate); 
i  is  usually  short  (division,  multiplication),  but  is  sometimes 
long  in  initial  syllables  (ideal,  biology).  Pupils  will  enjoy  pro- 
nouncing lists  of  words  in  application  of  these  principles,  and 
such  lists  are  easily  made  from  the  various  lessons: 

ap-pli-ca-tion  prin-ci-ples  a-rith-me-tic 

di-vin-i-ty  com-pli-ment  ge-og-ra-phy 

com-ple-ment  re-gen-er-ate  sup-pli-cate 

6.  For  written  work,  pupils  need  to  know  how  to  syllabicate  words;  but 
also,  since  pronunciation  principles  can  be  applied  to  syllables  in  a 
long  word,  pupils  who  know  how  to  syllabicate  can  more  quickly 
pronounce  new  words.  There  is  but  one  sure  way  to  syllabicate 
correctly — consult  the  dictionary!  But  as  one  often  needs  to  pro- 
nounce words  without  that  help  at  hand,  one  desires  other  means, 
even  if  less  reliable,  hence  the  following  laws  of  syllabication  are 
given.  When  all  three,  or  even  two,  agree,  the  student  may  feel  fairly 
safe,  but  when  there  is  conflict,  the  dictionary  should  be  consulted: 

a.  If  a  student  already  knows  how  to  pronounce  the  word,    he 

can  usually  distinguish  the  syllables;  but  if  he  isn't  certain, 
some  other  law  may  be  summoned  to  his  aid.  Example: 
In-com-prc-hen-si-ble. 

b.  If  he  has  had  work  which  helps  him  recognize  roots,    prefixes, 

and  suffixes,  he  will  recall  that  these  are  seldom  run  together 
into  syllables,  as,  for  example,  ex-ccp-tion,  re-view-ing;  but 
he  must  also  recall  his  laws  of  spelling,  so  that  he  knows 
that  the  duplicated  consonant  which  was  a  part  of  the  root 
in  filling,  was  added  with  the  suffix  in  cutting;  he  must  also 
have  learned  that  a  prefix  often  changes  the  pronunciation 
of  the  root,  as  in  recommend  and  immigrate. 

c.  The  placing  of  the  consonants  in  relation  to  the  vowels    aids 

not  only  in  syllabication,  but  also  in  pronunciation.  Such 
combinations  as  th,  ph,  and  dr,  are  counted  as  one  consonant. 
When  two  consonants  occur  between  two  vowels,  one  goes 
with  each  vowel.  Examples:  Consonant,  corn-bine,  syl-lable, 
lit-llc.  When  only  one  consonant  occurs  between  two  vow- 
els it  usually  goes  with  the  second.  Examples:  Conso-nant, 
sylla-ble,  u-sually,  di-verge. 

C.  Learning  how  to  consult  the  dictionary  for  the  correct  spelling  of  words. 
1.  Know  what  sorts  of  words  one  may  not  expect  to  find  in  an   abridged 
dictionary,   and   hence   the  rules  of  spelling  needed   for  words  not 
spelled  in  full. 

a.  Past  tenses  of  verbs  if  regularly  formed;  c.  g.,  soiled. 
I).   Plurals  of  nouns  if  regularly  formed;  c.  g.,  ladies. 

c.  Derivatives  easily  made;  e.  g.,  uninhabitable. 

d.  Regularly  formed  comparatives  and  superlatives  of    adjectives; 

e.  g.,  richer,  richest. 

[Eighth-grade  pupils  at  latest  may  learn  the  following  rules,  using  them  when 
in  doubt  and  when  no  dictionary  is  at  hand: 

a.  Monosyllables  and  words  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  ending  in  a  single 
consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  double  the  final  consonant  upon 
the  addition  of  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel.  Examples:  Run,  run- 
ning; red,  reddish;  hot,  hotter;  wit,  witty,  abet,  abetted;  occur,  occurrence; 
begin,  beginning. 

Corollary:  Note  with  care  words  which  do  not  come  under  the  rule 
and  why  they  do  not:  Two  vowels — rain,  raining;  two  consonants — warm, 


Dictionary  Work. — Spelling  and  Defining.  103 

warmed;  accent  on  first  syllable — travel,  traveler;  profit,  profitable;  suffix 
begins  with  a  consonant — hot,  hotly,  cap,  capless. 

b.  Words  ending  in  silent  e  omit  the  c  upon  the  addition  of  a  suffix  beginning 

with  a  vowel,  except  when  such  omission  causes  an  error  in  pronuncia- 
tion or  a  confusion  in  meaning.  Examples:  Bride,  bridal;  come,  coming; 
move,  movable;  fleece,  fleecy;  force,  forcible.  Examples  of  retention  on 
account  of  pronunciation:  Notice,  noticeable;  manage,  manageable;  advan- 
tage, advantageous.  Examples  of  retention  to  keep  correct  meaning:  Dye, 
dyeing  (vs.  dying);  singe,  singeing  {vs.  singing);  tinge,  tingeing  (vs.  tinging). 
Corollary:  When  the  suffix  begins  with  a  consonant  the  e  is  usually 
retained:  Hate,  hateful;  move,  movement;  pair,  paleness. 

c.  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  form  the  plural  by  changing 

y  to  i  and  adding  es.     Examples:  Lady,  ladies;  sky,  skies;  reply,  replies. 

d.  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel  do  not  change  the  y,  but  merely 

add  .?   to   form   the   plural.     Examples:  Day,  days;  monkey,   monkeys; 
turkey,  turkeys;  attorney,  attorneys. 

Corollary:  Final  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  is  quite  frequently 
changed  to  i  in  derivatives.  Examples:  Dally,  dalliance;  icy,  icily,  iciest; 
mercy,  merciless;  pity,  pitiful;  multiply,  multiplication.] 

2.  Know  sound  equivalents  or  near-equivalents  so  that  if  sound  is  the 

only  guide,  the  word  may  still  be  found. 

a.  Homonyms,  like  beet,  beat;  rain,  rein,  reign;  pare,  pear,  pair. 

b.  The  sound  of  /  may  be  spelled  with  /,  ph,  pf,  or  v.     Long  e 

may  be  spelled  with  e,  ee,  ea,  ie,  ei,  or  *,  as  in  evil,  knee, 
meat,  niece,  receive,  machine.  Teacher  should  study  introduc- 
ti6n  to  dictionary  and  give  pupils  the  sound  equivalents  most 
needed,  or  show  older  pupils  how  to  find  out  for  themselves. 

c.  The  n  sound,  when  initial,  is  often  spelled  with  gn,  gnome;  kn, 

knoll;  or  pn,  pneumatic;  in  which  the  first  consonant  is  silent. 
The  same  is  true  of  5  and  z  sounds — psychic,  czar,  etc.  Teach 
children  to  hunt  many  places  for  a  word,  till  found.  A 
good  game  is  for  the  teacher  to  pronounce  ten  words  which 
pupils  take  down  by  sound  alone,  or  by  sound  and  a  hint  of 
the  meaning,  and  then  find:  Currant  or  current,  prophet  or 
profit,  diver,  sailor  (or  sounded  like  er),  etc. 

d.  Whether  a  single  or  a  double  letter  may  be  expected. 

For  example,  in  pronouncing  accelerate,  one  sees  he  must 
have  two  c's  or  the  k  sound  couldn't  be  heard,  since  one  c 
before  e  would  be  like  5  only;  contrast  imitate  (a  root  word) 
and  immigrate  (a  derivative),  and  note  why  in  one  case 
there  are  two  m's. 

3.  Attitude  towards  reformed  spellings. 

a.  Choose  rule  if  one  spelling  is  by  rule;  e.  g.,  choose  traveler  and 

worshiping. 

b.  Choose  simpler  spelling  if  recognized  by  best  authorities. 

4.  Eye  training  necessary  to  enable  students  to  recognize  slight  differ- 

ences— an  aid  to  pronunciation,  spelling,  and  meaning;  for  example, 
students  often  write  percept  for  precept,  clam  for  calm,  and  go  so  far 
as  to  write  prehaps  for  perhaps,  and  casual  for  causal,  or  the  reverse. 
Many  games  and  devices  are  easily  thought  out  for  this  work. 
D.  Learning  to  choose  a  definition — to  get  the  right  meaning  for  a  word. 

1.  Know  whether  word  whose  meaning  is  sought  will  be  found  in  the 

dictionary  or  not. 

a.  See  C,  spelling,  above. 

b.  Learn  commoner  prefixes  and  suffixes  and  how  to  attach  them. 

c.  Be  able  to  change  a  noun's  definition  to  fit  a  derived  adjective 

or  verb. 

2.  Note  the  relation  of  accent  to  meaning,  and  learn  the  meaning  of 

the  more  usual  abbreviations,  a.,  n.,v.,v.  i.,  q.  v.,  etc.,  which  guide 
one  in  selecting  a  definition  to  fit  context. 


104  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

E.  Learning  to  find  the  choicest  word  to  use  to  express  a  thought  accurately. 

1.  Hunting  for  synonyms  and  discriminating  one  from  another — 

a.  When  grouped,  b.  When  necessary  to  be  looked  up  one  by  one. 

2.  Finding  antonyms.     3.  Using  examples  of  the  best  usage  of  words. 

F.  Using  the  introduction  and  appendix. 

1.  Introduction— gives  more  detailed  knowledge  of  work  discussed  above. 

a.  Pronunciation:  (1)  More  key  words;  (2)  sound  analysis;  (3)  ex- 

ceptional sounds  in  detail;   (4)   equivalent  sound  symbols. 

b.  Spelling:  (1)  Prefixes;  (2)  suffixes;  (3)  rules  for  spelling. 

c.  Meanings:  (1)   Abbreviations  used. 

2.  Appendix — very  different  in  different  texts  and  editions,  hence  to  be 

studied  according  to  book  in  use.     Usually  contains  brief  encyclo- 
paedic facts. 

a.  Proper  names:   (1)  Meanings  of  given  names;     (2)    accounts 

of  mythological  characters;  (3)  pronunciation  of  geographi- 
cal and  other  names. 

b.  Foreign  phrases  frequently  met  with  in  literature. 

c.  Common  abbreviations. 

d.  Relation  of  English  to  other  languages. 

e.  Signs  for  proof-reading. 


II.— MATHEMATICS. 

A.— ARITHMETIC. 

Arithmetic  is  the  only  phase  of  mathematics  here  outlined,  since 
it  is  the  one  generally-accepted  mathematical  subject  taught  in 
the  elementary  grades.  A  few  schools  introduce  elementary  alge- 
bra and  geometry.  Many  who  do  not  teach  these  subjects,  do 
frequently  employ  literal  notation,  (as  when  using  x  for  the  un- 
known quantity,  or  in  teaching  a  simple  formula  for  square  root,) 
and  wisely  emphasize  the  underlying  principles  of  all  mathematics 
in  teaching  the  laws  of  signs,  and  the  accurate  wording  of  equations 
in  explanations  of  problems. 

As  shown  on  pp.  261-263,  arithmetic,  like  language,  grew  from 
social  needs;  in  fact,  it  is  a  form  of  language, — the  language  of  rela- 
tionships of  things, — and  might  even  be  counted  a  part  of  the  En- 
glish course  did  it  not  have  so  definite  and  so  important  a  field  of 
its  own  as  to  warrant  its  separate  discussion.  Arithmetic  has  not 
only  grown  out  of  social  needs,  but  continues  progressively  to  assist 
man  in  making  better  and  better  social  adjustments,  and  conse- 
quently, like  language,  has  the  strongest  possible  defense  for  a  place 
in  the  curriculum — the  threefold  defense  of  (1)  found  by  earliest 
peoples  to  be  necessary  and  hence  developed  by  them,  and  others, 
to  meet  real  needs;  (2)  necessary  in  present  social  life;  and  (3)  so  far 
as  any  one  has  vision  to  see  into  the  future,  always  to  be  necessary. 

As  men  change  their  methods  of  meeting  certain  emergencies, 
new  topics  develop  and  old  ones  become  obsolete.  The  most  ob- 
vious  illustration   is   that   of   the   formation   of   stock   companies, 


Mathematics. — Arithmetic.  105 

rather  than  of  simple  partnerships,  when  men  need  money  to  fur- 
ther some  enterprise  in  which  they  believe.  But,  whatever  changes 
may  come  in  special  topics,  the  fundamental  processes  are  forever 
necessary.  (Some  business-men  declare  that  if  our  youth  were  only 
accurate  and  fairly  quick  in  the  fundamental  operations,  they  would 
ask  no  more.) 

Too  much  cannot  be  said  in  favor  of  a  thorough  grounding  of 
pupils  in  the  fundamental  processes,  of  which  counting  is  the  basis. 
A  person  who  has  been  taught  to  count  accurately  has  within  his 
power  the  key  to  the  solution  of  all  the  ordinary  arithmetical  pro- 
cesses. Adding  is  simply  an  application  of  counting,  and  can  al- 
ways be  proved  by  reverting  to  counting.  Subtraction,  being  the 
reverse  of  addition,  can  be  proved  by  counting  backwards.  Mul- 
tiplication is  shortened  addition,  and,  hence,  through  addition,  re- 
verts to  counting,  as  division  does  through  subtraction.  It  would 
take  a  long  time  to  have  to  count  backwards  from  10395,  297  ones 
at  a  time,  to  find  just  how  many  297's  make  10395;  yet  it  could  be 
done,  if  the  person  did  not  know  how  to  do  long-division.  Pupils 
in  the  lower  grades  may  well  be  taught  to  check  much  of  their 
work  by  counting,  thus  accomplishing  two  purposes:  (1)  Fixing 
the  fact  that  counting  can  be  reverted  to,  which  is  a  great  boon  to 
pupils  who  leave  school  early,  and  (a)  either  handle  in  adulthood 
very  simple  numbers  for  which  counting  is. sufficient,  or  (b)  have 
the  acumen  to  dig  out  the  conventional  processes,  still  checking 
themselves  by  counting;  (2)  showing  that  the  fundamental  pro- 
cesses developed  because  of  man's  natural  inclination  to  find  quicker 
ways  of  doing  things,  and,  consequently,  that  they  are  worth  learn- 
ing well  if  one  wants  to  compute  rapidly. 

The  fundamental  operations  with  fractions — common,  decimal, 
and  per-cent  fractions — like  those  with  whole  numbers,  can  also 
be  checked  by  counting,  if  one  only  knows  how  to  count  small 
portions  instead  of  wholes. 

Besides  mechanical  skill  in  computation  with  numbers,  imagi- 
nation is  a  necessary  quality  in  conquering  the  subject  of  arithmetic. 
To  see  relationships  is  an  essential  ability;  one  must  see  relation- 
ships of  quantities,  to  make  comparisons;  he  must  see  relationships 
between  steps  in  a  process,  to  conquer  the  process  so  that  it  can  be 
rebuilt  if  forgotten;  must  see  relationships  between  situations,  to 
recognize  what  unknown  factor  is  desired;  must  see  relationships 
between  the  desired  answer  and  the  processes,  to  aid  him  in  select- 
ing (without  guess-work  or  trial  of  first  one  and  then  another)  the 
correct  process  or  processes  to  employ.  Image  building  and  holding 
must,  therefore,  be  a  fundamental  part  of  all  arithmetic  training. 


10C>  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Grade  I. 

Subject-Matter. — Cardinal  counting,  with  only  such  other  num- 
ber relations  as  children  find  actual  need  for;  that  is: 

Counting  objects  from  1  to  20  by  ones;  by  twos;  by  fives. 
Counting  abstractly  to  100  by  ones,  twos,  fives,  and  tens. 
Counting  with  symbols  in  the  same  way — laying  in  order  cards  containing 
the  figures;  or,  towards  the  end  of  the  year,  writing  the  figures. 
Counting  backwards  from  20  to  0. 

Method. — The  conventional  consecutive  number-names  and 
symbols  must  be  acquired  imitatively.  Most  children  can  count 
as  far  as  five,  while  many  can  reach  ten  without  error,  before  they 
enter  first  grade. 

During  the  first  six  or  seven  months,  the  counting  should  seem 
incidental  to  the  pupils,  though  the  teacher  consciously  plans  to 
use  every  opportunity  to  create  a  need  for  counting.  Children 
count  pencils,  crayolas,  cards,  papers,  scissors,  rulers,  and  the  many 
other  things  distributed  and  collected  during  recitations  or  seat- 
work.  In  games,  children  count  by  twos,  fives,  and  tens,  according 
to  the  game  played.  In  reading  and  language  lessons,  opportuni- 
ties to  count  will  arise,  such  as  counting  the  wheat-seeds  in  a  head 
of  wheat  (see  p.  233),  and  counting  the  twelve  clock-strokes  that 
Cinderella  hears  when  she  stays  too  late,  at  the  ball.  Rhymes  such 
as  "One,  two,  buckle  my  shoe";  and  "One,  two,  three,  four,  five; 
I  caught  a  hare  alive";  help  to  fix  number-names  in  sequence. 
Naming  the  digits  as  seen  on  the  blackboard,  finding  the  place  in 
the  primer  by  page  number,  laying  the  number-symbols  in  correct 
order  for  seat-work,  and  keeping  a  calendar,  are  a  few  means  of 
teaching  counting  by  means  of  written  symbols.  All  text-books  on 
primary  arithmetic,  though  not  necessary  for  class  use,  are  sugges- 
tive to  the  teacher  of  things  she  can  do. 

During  the  last  two  or  three  months  of  the  school  year  the  teacher 
should  test  every  pupil,  so  that  if  any  are  still  unable  to  meet  the 
requirements  they  should  be  given  special  lessons  and  drills. 

Indefinite  and  a  few  definite  comparisons  will  incidentally  arise, 
but  no  required  amount  of  such  subject-matter  should  enter  into 
the  promotion  standard.  Some  pupils  will  make  addition  combi- 
nations of  their  own  accord,  and  some  will  readily  use  the  ideas  of 
\,  |,  and  \ .  A  few  denominate  numbers  will  be  used,  such  as  inch 
and  foot,  pint  and  quart,  cent  and  dime,  and  dozen;  but  complete 
"tables"  will  not  be  taught. 

Telling  of  time  may  be  learned  but  should  not  be  insisted  upon 
till  second  grade.  If  this  is  done,  Roman  numerals  to  XII  must 
be  learned. 


Arithmetic. — Grade  II.— Subject-Matter.  107 

Grade  II. 
Subject- Matter. — Counting,  as  in  Grade  I,  continued.     Also  car- 
dinal counting  in  more  difficult  ways: 

From  0  to  100  by  twos  and  fives,  both  forward  and  back;  to  30  by  twos,  be- 
ginning at  any  number;  from  20,  backward  by  twos,  beginning  at  any 
number;  to  30,  forward  by  threes,  beginning  with  0  or  any  multiple  of  3; 
from  15,  backward  by  threes,  beginning  at  15  or  any  smaller  multiple  of  3. 

Ordinal  and  multiplicative  counting  as  far  as  needed,  probably 
first,  second,  third,  etc.,  through  tenth;  and  once,  twice,  three 
times,  etc.,  through  ten  times. 

Reading  and  writing  all  numbers  of  three  digits;  that  is,  to  1000. 

Committing  the  forty-five  addition  facts  and  reversing  them  for 
the  subtraction  facts. 

Adding  of  short  columns  of  numbers  of  just  one  digit;  still 
shorter  columns  of  numbers  of  two  and  of  three  digits— no  sum  to 
exceed  999  (that  is,  three  digits). 

Relation  seeing,  especially  in  the  use  of  simple  denominate  num- 
bers necessary  for  daily  use;  dry  measure,  linear  measure,  etc.* 

Use  of  such  simple  fractions  as  are  needed  in  the  child's  daily 
experience:  as,  |,  |,  \,  §,  f.     Telling  time  by  the  clock. 

Method. — By  the  second-grade  age,  children  are  given  to  ex- 
changing things — apples,  candy,  toys,  etc.  This  tendency,  coupled 
with  love  of  play,  causes  store-keeping,  to  be  a  natural  game  for  the 
teacher  to  institute.  To  children  as  store-keepers  of  every  variety, 
as  clerks,  as  delivery-boys,  as  purchasers,  etc.,  every  necessary 
transaction  and  attendant  process  of  computation  becomes  moti- 
vated. A  need  is  felt  for  learning  to  add  and  subtract,  for  learning 
to  measure  by  means  of  the  customary  denominate-number  tables, 
(dry,  liquid,  linear,  time,  weight,  dozen,  United  States  money,  etc.,) 
and  if  the  drills  are  brief,  snappy,  and  constant,  children  will  revel 
in  the  actual  practice  as  well  as  rejoice  over  the  result  in  their  effi- 
ciency as  merchants,  clerks,  or  purchasers.  The  desire  to  get  the 
correct  result  for  personal  reasons  is  a  powerful  stimulus  to  accuracy. 

The  methods  of  drill  and  of  presentation  must  be  such  as  to 
keep  alive  the  child's  natural  love  for  number-work.  The  practical 
value  of  arithmetic  must  be  shown  to  pupils  by  the  teacher's  use  of 
practical  situations  both  for  motivating  and  for  applying  numbers 
and  processes.  Nature-study,  seat-work,  paper-folding,  cutting, 
drawing,  braiding,  weaving,  measuring,  building,  can  all  supply 
number  knowledge.  Arranging  colored  circles  (large  dots)  to  make 
domino  cards,  fixes  the  simpler  addition  facts.  Keeping  score  in 
bean  bag  and  racing  games  motivates  adding  and  comparing. 

*  For  suggestions  see  Speer's  "Primary  Arithmetic — For  Teachers." 


108  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Because  young  teachers  find  the  distribution  of  subject-matter 
into  small  units  very  difficult,  a  suggestion  is  here  given  them  through 
the  subdivision  of  the  work  of  this  year  into  months.  Since  frac- 
tions are  used  only  incidentally,  they  do  not  appear  in  the  outline. 

First  month — Review  all  first-grade  work,  and,  whenever  necessary,  reteach 
facts,  and  drill. 

Teach  the  Roman  numerals  I,  II,  III,  V,  and  X. 

Write  numbers  from  1  to  10  inclusive.  ("Numbers"  always  to  mean 
"Arabic"  or  "Hindu"  unless  otherwise  indicated.) 

Read  numbers  from  1  to  20  inclusive. 

Do  counting  as  indicated  in  Grade  I  by  means  of  room  administration. 

Have  games  to  train  observation — and  to  cultivate  quickness  and  accuracy 

of  sight,  hearing,  and  touch. 

t       u  ^      aa-s  u-     *•  (111111111       22222222 

leach  the  additive  combinations,    iio'}4tSfi7SQ       ,,  o   i   t  fi  j  o  q 

If  to  be  used,  teach  the  signs,  +  (plus)  and  —  (minus). 

Second  month — Keep  up  all  review  work. 

Count  backward,  as  well  as  forward,  between  0  and  100,  by  twos,  fives,  tens. 

Teach  Roman  numerals  through  XII,  emphasizing  the  difference  between 
IV  and  VI,  and  IX  and  XI. 

Add  the  sign,  =  (equals),  if  not  already  known. 

Continue  exercises  in  sense  training,  especially  in  image  holding. 

Conquer  the  key  to  reading  and  writing  all  numbers  to  100,  by  seeing  that 
the  nine  digits  are  repeated  in  order  in  each  new  group,  and  that  the  new  mile- 
posts  (twenty,  thirty,  sixty,  etc.)  are  also  the  same  nine  digits  with  a  different 
"place-value."  Use  both  toothpicks  and  one-inch  squares  for  tying  into  bundles 
to  count  by  tens.     (This  "bundling"  makes  good  seat-work.) 

Teach  children  to  see  that  16  is  a  10  and  a  6;  31,  three  10's  and  a  1,  etc. 

t       u  *i.      aa-s  u-     .•  /  10  10  10  10  10  10  10  10  10    .     10 

Teach  the  additive  combinations,  {    i     2     3     4     5     6     7     8     9    anything, 

and  apply  to  larger  numbers  so  a  child  can  add  10  to  any  number. 

Apply  to  counting  by  tens  beginning  at  any  number. 

Teach  the  combinations  with  9  as  the  common  addend,  helping  pupils  to  see 

that  since  9  is  one  less  than  10,  it  is  very  easy  to  add  9  by  thinking  one  less  than 

the  sum  obtained  by  adding   10.      (Bracketed  number  groups  have  occurred 

,    (  ,    x     /    mi       [9]       9       9       9      9       9      9      9         9 

before  in  reverse  order)     (    [J       [2]       3       4      5       6       7       8      9    anything. 

Third  month — Put  on  the  board  a  row  of  numbers.  Say  to  pupils,  "Read 
from  left  to  right.     Read  each  one-larger;  two-larger."     Repeat,  from  right  to  left. 

Count  forward  to  30  and  back  from  20,  by  twos,  but  beginning  at  any  num- 
ber, odd  or  even. 

Tie  up  bundles  of  tens  to  make  hundreds,  and  apply  knowledge  gained  in 
reading  and  writing  numbers  from  20  to  100  to  reading  and  writing  numbers 
containing  any  hundreds'  digit.  Prevent  the  common  error  of  reading  256  (two 
hundred  fifty-six)  as  it  if  were  two  numbers,  200  and  56. 

Read  the  Roman  numerals  on  several  clock-faces.     Note  how  they  are  placed. 

Each  child  should  make  a  clock-face. 

Tell  time  by  the  full  hours  only.  Show  on  clock-faces  where  the  hands 
(represented  by  two  toothpicks,  one  shorter  than  the  other)  should  be  if  it  is 
two  o'clock;  five  o'clock;  seven  o'clock,  etc.  On  the  teacher's  large  clock-face, 
one  child  may  make  the  hands  show  whatever  hours  he  chooses,  for  others  to  name. 


Arithmetic. — Grade  II. — Subject-Matter  by  Months.     109 

Sense-training  and  image-holding  continued. 
Teach  the  additive  /  [31   [31  3  3  3  3  3  3   [31        [11    [21    [31   4  5  6  7  8   [91 
combinations       \  [lj   12J  3  4  5  6  7  8  |9J        llj    L2J   [3j   4  5  6  7  8  [9] 

Teach  the  sign,  X,  if  desired  for  use  in  writing  or  in  indicating  doubles  given, 
as  two  threes  (2X3),  two  eights  (2X8),  etc.  The  sign  should  not  be  called 
"times,"  since  the  multiplication  indicated  is  merely  incidental.  In  the  same 
way,  incidental  division  may  be  taught,  as  in  asking  what  two  equal  numbers 
make  10,  8,  etc. 

Introduce  one-step  problems  in  addition,  subtraction,  and  multiplication, 
using  any  facts  learned  to  date;  for  example,  "I  had  37  cents  in  my  bank  and 
added  a  dime.  How  much  had  I?"  "What  will  two  pencils  cost  @  5c  each?" 
"At  4c  each?" 

Fourth  month — Count  by  threes  forward  to  30,  beginning  at  0  or  at  any  mul- 
tiple of  3.     Same  backwards  from  15. 

Put  on  blackboard,  in  either  a  horizontal  row  or  in  a  vertical  column,  about 
five  numbers  (only  three  or  four,  if  five  are  too  many).  Say  to  children,  "Look 
at  blackboard.  Face  the  other  way.  Read  what  you  saw — top  to  bottom, 
bottom  to  top;  or,  left  to  right,  and  right  to  left.  Face  the  front.  Look  again. 
About  face!  Read  (without  looking)  from  left  to  right,  each  number  three 
larger."  Put  on  a  new  set  of  numbers  and  repeat;  with  each,  read  three  smaller; 
two,  or  one,  larger,  or  smaller,  for  review. 

Review  all  preceding  combinations,  keeping  record  of  children's  errors  and 
speed.     Drill  on  all  difficult  cases. 

Add  a  group  of  combinations  which  demands  no  number-thinking  but  does 
help  to  fix  the  zero  value — 

000000000         0  1     ,n  .     .  ,  .,        .         ... 

12     3     4     5     6     7     8     9  anything.     J    (0  to  be  read  nauBht»  not  auShL) 

Tell  time  by  hours  and  half  hours  only.    Teach  the  signs,  $  and  c,  if  needed. 

Continue  sense  training  and  ratio  seeing  in  connection  with  foot  and  yard, 
halves  of  units,  etc. 

Write  numbers  in  columns  for  convenience  in  adding,  so  that  ones  come 
under  ones,  tens  under  tens,  hundreds  under  hundreds,  even  when  numbers  of 
all  three  lengths  occur  in  one  column. 

Fifth  month — Keep  up  all  previous  work. 

Count  by  ordinal  numbers — first,  second,  third — to  twenty-fifth,  or  farther. 
Or  start  at  the  seventieth  and  count  to  the  ninetieth — a  good  review  of  cardinal 
counting. 

Teach  the  new  combinations:   [     [J]     \*]     [3]     [4]     5     g     7     g     [9I 

Read  rows  or  columns  of  numbers  four  larger  or  smaller.  Use  other  devices 
for  seat-work  and  drills  in  applying  these  combinations. 

Have  a  large  calendar  in  the  front  of  the  room.  Teach  children  to  use  it 
and  to  date  all  papers  by  it. 

Sense-training,  image-holding,  and  ratio-seeing,  made  harder. 

Encourage  children  to  make  up  problems  and  to  see  problems  in  various  sta- 
tistics that  interest  them.  For  example,  how  many  children  present,  due,  ab- 
sent? Or  reverse.  How  many  children  can  be  supplied  with  two  apples  each 
from  a  basket  containing  26,  14,  32,  etc.?     (Children  count  by  twos  to  find  out.) 

Adapt  to  threes,  fives,  tens,  by  changing  to  blocks,  candies,  pennies,  dimes. 

Whenever  it  is  possible  to  use  the  terms  add,  subtract,  sum,  difference,  etc., 
rather  than  the  general  expressions,  work  the  example  and  get  the  answer,  do  so. 


110  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Sixth  month — Keep  up  all  previous  work. 

Drill  on  all  hard  combinations.  Keep  individual  records  of  scores  as  to  num- 
ber correct  or  as  to  speed  in  all  forms  of  drills. 

Add  these  combinations,  as  new,    <  „  -  «         7  S  S  I  an<^  waster  them. 

Review  the  denominate-number  tables  used  in  first  grade  by  playing  store. 

Ratio-seeing  emphasized.     Count  by  the  earliest  multiplicative  numbers. 

Tell  time  by  hours,  half-hours,  and  quarter-hours. 

Seventh  month — Count  by  fours  to  20;  forward  and  back. 

Apply  number  facts  learned  in  the  sixth  month. 

Begin  teaching  column  addition — of  one  column  only. 

Tell  time  by  use  of  the  five-minute  divisions. 

Add  liquid  measure  and  United  States  money  to  the  earlier  denominate- 
number  tables  learned. 

Secure  greater  initiative  in  ratio-  and  image-seeing  and  -holding,  and  in 
problem-making  and  -solving. 

Eighth  month — Continue  all  lines  of  work  begun  in  preceding  months,  work- 
ing for  clearer  insight  into  relations  and  surer  control  of  mechanics.* 

Add  to  the  denominate-number  tables  that  of  time.  Drill  on  the  number  of 
days  in  a  month,  days  in  a  week,  hours  in  a  day,  minutes  in  an  hour,  seconds  in 
a  minute. 

Let  all  pupils  who  can  do  so,  tell  time  by  minute  intervals,  but  do  not  fret 
over  those  who  can't. 

To  column  addition  of  ones,  add  that  of  tens,  and  even  hundreds,  provided 
the  sum  does  not  exceed  three  digits  (except  for  children  who  know  larger  num- 
bers anyway). 

Ninth  month — Check  children  to  see  that  each  has  the  work  of  the  year  up  to 
standard  in  power  to  image  and  in  control  of  facts.     Work  to  attain  the  standard. 

An  experimental  studyf  to  determine  the  difficulties  in  addition  and  multi- 
plication shows  that  out  of  more  than  one  thousand  pupils  who  were  tested,  be- 

(97888999 
fore  and  after  drill,  51  to  95  pupils  missed  these  combinations,       itftjf-jj 

.  oi.m         -i        •      a  tu  (27596678889797 

whereas  21  to  50  pupils  missed  these:     <   10305434033455 

It  would  appear  that  the  combination  of  9  with  numbers,  had  in  no  way  been 
associated  with  10,  (see  second  month's  outline,)  or  the  combinations  containing 
9  would  scarcely  have  been  missed  so  often.  At  any  rate,  the  teacher  must  meet 
the  needs  of  individuals  as  well  as  of  the  class  as  a  whole. 

If  pupils  are  able  to  do  it,  teach  subtraction  (by  the  addition  or  Austrian 
method)  with  numbers  of  no  more  than  three  digits. 

Grade  III. 

All  work  clone  in  grades  I  and  II  must  be  kept  fresh  through  use 
in  practical  and  interesting  situations.  The  same  lines  of  work 
must  be  extended,  to  meet  children's  growing  abilities: 

Writing  and  reading  numbers  of  four,  five,  and  six  orders,  possibly  even 
seven  orders,  because  of  some  specific  need. 

Greater  content  put  into  large  numbers  through  the  use  of  bundles  of  tooth- 
picks— ones  tied  to  show  tens;  tens  tied  to  show  that  a  hundred  equals  ten  tens; 
etc.     Let  pupils  push  to  one  side  on  their  desks  the  necessary  bundles  as  the 

*  See  devices  for  drill,  p.  279  ff. 

t  Made  by  Dr.  H.  \  .  liolloway,  Trenton,  N.  J.     State  Gazette  Publishing  Company. 


Arithmetic. — Grade  III. — Subject-Matter  by  Months.  Ill 

teacher  shows  a  card  containing  different  numbers  like  279;  4)52;  1645.  Or,  re- 
versing this,  let  the  teacher  or  some  child  show  bundles  and  others  write  the 
number  in  figures,  on  blackboard  or  on  paper. 

Addition  and  subtraction  with  any-sized  numbers  must  now  be  mastered, 
although  practice  will  be  necessary  in  all  succeeding  grades.  The  teacher  should 
not  harp  on  children's  errors,  but  should  frequently  test*  their  progress  and  then 
bring  up  deficiencies.! 

In  the  third  grade  the  necessity  of  rinding  the  sum  of  several 
equal  addends,  as  when  a  merchant  buys  from  a  wholesale  dealer, 
or  when  he  makes  out  his  bills  to  customers,  causes  a  real  need  for 
a  quick  way  to  add  equal  addends,  the  answer  to  which  problem  is 
found  in  the  study  of  multiplication,  the  new  work  of  this  grade. 

Pupils  having  to  find  the  cost  of  seven  dozen  oranges  at  45c  a 
dozen,  and  knowing  only  the  addition  way  to  find  the  result,  put 
45c  down  the  column  to  be  added.  If  there  is  rivalry  in  speed, 
45c  several  are  sure  to  use  some  quick  method,  possibly  saying  5 
45c  fives  are  25,  and  then  adding  from  that  point  on — 30,  35.  In 
45c  a  similar  way  some  one  knows  3  fours,  perhaps  doubles  that 
45c  sum,  and  then  adds  4,  getting  28  for  the  sum  of  the  seven 
45c  fours,  before  adding  the  3  tens  from  the  35  of  the  one's  col- 
45c  umn.  A  little  questioning  of  the  quickest  children  will  dis- 
close to  all  the  class  the  value  of  a  short  way.  The  teacher  may  then 
give  the  briefer  expression  for  this,  and  lead  pupils  to  see  just  how 
the  product  is  obtained.  The  need  for  speed  will  make  pupils  want 
to  conquer  their  "tables,"  which,  by  the  way,  should  be  presented 
in  the  order  of  their  least  difficulty  rather  than  in  numerical  order: 
2,1,10,  11,5,  9,(0),  3,  4,  6,  7,  8,  12.J 

During  the  process  of  conquering  the  tables,  many  applications 
will  demand  the  multiplication  by  one  digit  of  rather  large  numbers. 
As  soon  as  there  is  a  need  for  teaching  how  to  multiply  by  a  number 
of  several  digits,  teach  it.  One  child  once  said  to  his  teacher  at 
just  the  right  time,  "I  do  wish  I  knew  how  many  seconds  old  I 
am."  The  teacher  asured  him  it  was  an  easy  thing  to  find  out, 
and  by  the  time  the  multiplications  needed  in  reducing  years  to 
months,  to  days,  to  hours,  to  minutes,  and  then  to  seconds,  were 
accomplished,  every  child  in  the  class  knew  how  to  do  "long  mul- 
tiplication"; and  as  every  child  was  interested  in  his  own  age  and 
in  comparisons  between  his  and  others'  ages  in  seconds,  the  "drill" 
took  care  of  itself. 

Applications  of  multiplication  will  be  found  in  the  development 
of  square  measure,  particularly  in  the  finding  of  rectangular  and 

*  See  pp.  292-295  this  Course  of  Study. 

t  So  many  excellent  drill-cards,  sheets,  tablets,  or  booklets,  are  now  available  for  reasonable 
sums  that  the  teacher  of  today  need  not  waste  valuable  hours  in  making  drill-cards,  once  so  necessary. 

t  See  "The  Multiplication-Tables,"  published  by  Flanagan,  Chicago,  10c,  and  Holloway's 
study  referred  to  on  p.  110. 


112  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

triangular  areas.  Also  in  the  making  out  of  bills  in  store-keeping, 
and  in  measuring  and  computing  the  cost  of  certain  materials  used 
in  industrial  work.* 

Short-division  is  taught  incidentally  in  drill  upon  the  multipli- 
cation-tables, as  when  the  teacher  asks  such  questions  as,  How 
many  sixes  in  42?     In  36?     In  24? 

Nature-study,  games,  the  industrial  work,  excursions,  the  study 
in  home  life  of  the  preparation  for  winter,  in  canning  fruit,  buying 
fuel,  etc.,  will  suggest  innumerable  concrete  and  practical  problems 
for  third-grade  pupils  to  make  and  to  solve. 

Ability  to  hold  images  in  mind  for  use  in  comparisons  should 
continue  to  be  increased.  Ratio  or  relationship  seeing,  as  indicated 
on  p.  105,  is  a  vital  factor  in  arithmetical  power,  and  should  be  used 
whenever  possible.  A  set  of  cards  containing  expressed  ratios,  in 
connection  with  each  multiplication-table  as  taught,  is  a  helpful  de- 
vice. The  child  who  looks  at  3/12  and  thinks  one-fourth  and  at  12/3 
and  thinks  four,  is  laying  a  good  foundation  for  later  problem-work. 

Third-grade  pupils  should  learn  to  write  and  read  the  simplest 
common  fractions  (^,  \,  f ,  \,  f ,  at  least),  and  to  feel  sure  that  each 
means  something  to  them,  through  seeing  the  indicated  relations 
in  lines,  surfaces,  and  objects  about  the  room  or  home. 

Before  the  work  of  the  grade  is  complete,  children  should  know 
how  to  check  or  prove  the  correctness  of  their  own  work,  and  also 
to  have  started  to  form  the  habit  of  always  doing  so  before  feeling 
satisfied  to  submit  the  work  to  the  class  or  to  the  teacher. 

The  third  grade  is  none  too  early  to  start  another  good  habit — 
that  of  casting  the  written  solution  into  a  form  that  will  save  time 
and  insure  clear  thinking;  such,  for  example,  as:  Given;  Desired, 
or  Required;  Solution,  or  Work;  Check,  or  Proof.  True,  this  form 
can  become  stereotyped  and  meaningless;  but  it  need  not  become 
so,  and  is  one  way  of  helping  pupils  keep  their  imaging  clear  and 
their  mechanical  work  up  to  standard. 

Grade  IV. 

All  processes  taught  in  preceding  grades  must  now  be  done  with 
greater  speed,  greater  accuracy,  and  with  more  difficult  numbers. 

The  mastery  of  the  process  of  long-division  is  the  new  work  of 
the  year.  This  necessitates  daily  drill  on  the  multiplication-tables 
and  upon  such  questions  as, — How  many  nines  in  67?  In  75?  In 
71?) — as  a  preparation  for  division.  Long-division  should  be  ap- 
proached through  analyzing  what  has  been  done  by  pupils  in  short- 

*  A  pamphlet  on  "The  Social  Motive  in  Arithmetic,"  by  James  F.  Millis,  describes  work  done 
at  "The  Francis  W.  Parker  School,"  Chicago,  and  shows  how  children  cared  for  about  a  dozen 
chickens,  bought  feed,  sold  eggs,  and  kept  their  accounts. 


Arithmetic. — Grade  IV.  113 

division,  and  finding  that  four  steps,  repeated  over  and  over  again, 
are  all  that  must  be  known.     These  steps  are: 

1.  Estimate  (how  many  times  the  divisor  can  be  found  in  the  partial  dividend 

necessary  to  use). 

2.  Multiply  (the  divisor  by  the  estimate  made). 

3.  Subtract  (the  product  of  the  divisor  and  quotient  figure  [or  estimate]  from  the 

partial  dividend  used). 

4.  Bring  down  (the  next  figure  of  the  dividend,  to  be  placed  at  the  right  of  the 

remainder,  all  of  which  now  becomes  a  new  partial  dividend  with  which 
the  steps,  estimate,  multiply,  subtract,  and  bring  down,  are  again  used). 

When  the  steps  are  once  secured  from  an  analysis  of  a  shorts-divi- 
sion example,  pupils  should  test  their  use  of  the  steps  with  divisors 
like  21,  71,  31,  51,  61,  so  that  the  ones'  digit  will  not  often  alter  the 
first  estimate.  Next,  pupils  should  be  given  39,  49,  89,  29,  etc., 
as  divisors,  so  that  the  ones'  digit  is  sure  to  change  the  quotient 
estimate,  even  to  the  extent  of  needing  to  think  40  for  39,  30  for 
29,  70  for  69,  etc.,  in  making  the  estimate.  After  this  the  divisors 
should  be  32,  52,  92,  and  so  on;  78,  68,  28,  etc.;  43,  83,  etc.;  97,  47, 
etc.;  until  25,  35,  45,  etc.,  are  reached.  The  general  order  of  pro- 
cedure will  by  this  time  be  well  fixed,  and  teachers  need  only  to 
look  out  for  individual  errors  such  as  putting  too  many  naughts  in 
the  quotient  when  the  child  has  once  learned  to  put  any  there; 
having  a  remainder  large  enough  to  contain  the  divisor  once  more 
and  not  recognizing  the  fact,  but  writing  a  one  in  the  quotient  be- 
fore continuing;  and  similar  errors.  As  soon  as  the  process  is  mas- 
tered so  that  accuracy  is  assured,  pupils  may  work  for  speed — both 
in  dividing  and  in  checking  results. 

Apply  standard  tests  in  all  the  fundamental  processes,  and  en- 
courage pupils  to  take  pride  in  being  up  to  standard. 

A  visit  to  any  industry  will  provide  statistics  from  which  pupils 
will  love  to  make  problems  the  solution  of  which  will  demand  the 
use  of  the  fundamental  processes.  For  example,  during  a  visit  to 
one  of  the  Ely  iron  mines,  the  author  heard  how  many  loads  of 
six  tons  each  were  hoisted  a  day  by  225  men;  how  many  tons  of 
ore  were  shipped  annually;  how  many  men  worked  in  each  shift, 
and  for  how  many  hours;  what  pay  each  class  of  men  received;  the 
annual  number  of  posts  used  for  props  in  the  mine;  the  number  of 
posts  shipped  in  on  one  flat-car;  and  so  on  through  a  long  list  of 
interesting  statistics.  Minnesota  state  reports  and  government  re- 
ports also  contain  valuable  statistics  about  industries  and  resources.* 

Forms  for  stating  problems  in  both  oral  and  written  work  must 
be  developed  and  adhered  to  as  a  means  of  clearer  thinking  as  well 
as  of  better  oral  expression  and  of  neater  written-work. 

*  Miss  Deming's  new  book,  called  "Number  Stories,"  about  "Ralph,"  and  "How  He  Helped," 
will  be  invaluable  to  teachers  of  fourth  grade  and  above. 


114  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Puzzles  and  arithmetical  games  such  as  occur  in  current  juvenile 
magazines  may  frequently  be  used  with  profit.  A  few  illustra- 
tions follow: 

(1)  Write  on  your  paper  any  number.  Double  it.  Add  4.  Multiply  this 
sum  by  5.  Add  12.  Multiply  by  10.  Subtract  320.  The  teacher  then  asks 
several  children  in  turn  to  read  their  results.  Each  time  the  teacher  says,  Was 
your  original  number  — ?  (giving  as  her  answer  the  child's  result  with  the  two 
right  hand  digits  mentally  omitted).  If  the  child  says  "no,"  the  teacher  says, 
"Then  your  work  is  incorrect."  As  no  two  children  have  chosen  the  same  origi- 
nal number,  they  wonder  how  the  teacher  knows.  Later,  the  plan  may  be  ex- 
plained. 

(2)  Think  of  a  number.  Double  it.  Add  10  (or  any  even  number  which  the 
teacher  chooses).  Take  one-half  the  sum.  Subtract  the  number  of  which  you 
first  thought.  Your  answer  should  be  5  (or  half  of  whatever  number  the  teacher 
announced).     This  can  be  varied  in  many  ways. 

(3)  Write  a  number  of  several  digits.  Add  the  digits  mentally  and  subtract 
that  sum  from  the  original  number.  Rewrite  the  number,  omitting  any  one  of 
the  digits.  Now  add  the  digits.  When  this  sum  is  named  to  the  teacher,  she 
says,  "You  omitted  7  (or  6,  or  5,  etc.)  from  your  number."  She  knows,  because 
she  mentally  subtracts  the  sum  named  by  the  child  from  the  nearest  higher 
multiple  of  9. 

Pupils  should  be  helped  to  fix  the  habit  of  checking  or  proving 
all  work  done  at  their  seats. 

From  fourth  grade  on  "there  should  be  a  great  deal  of  mental 
arithmetic — not  for  the  number  combinations,  but  that  children 
may  learn  to  understand  and  to  use  ideas  and  words  in  reasoning."* 
Quick  oral  work  is  valuable;  in  one  grade,  where  just  three  minutes 
a  day  were  given,  questions  like  these  were  once  heard:  "Begin 
with  5;  multiply  by  6;  add  2;  add  4;  think  of  the  result  as  pints  of 
milk;  reduce  to  quarts  and  sell  at  5c  a  quart."  After  a  similar 
series  of  mechanical  steps,  the  teacher  said,  "Think  of  them  as 
carnations  and  sell  at  50c  a  dozen." 

If  given  orally,  the  teacher's  voice  punctuates  such  a  series  of 
different  operations  to  be  performed.  But  if  teachers  write  on  the 
board  examples  involving  several  operations,  the  mathematical 
"law  of  signs"  must  be  learned  and  obeyed.  For  example,  to  each 
of  these  there  is  but  one  correct  result:  99  x2 — 27  +  3  +4  x4 — 24 
+  4=?  21  +9-4-3— 8+2+3x5  =  ?  3+4x8—10  +  2—60-6  =  ? 
Children  who  do  not  know  that  Indicated  multiplications  and  divi- 
sions must  be  performed  before  any  sums  or  differences  are  found,  will 
obtain  several  different  answers.  In  cases  where  only  multiplica- 
tion and  division  are  indicated,  as  in,  16  -=-4  x2  =?  and  5  x30  +3  =? 
the  law  says,  Perform  the  indicated  operations  in  the  order  in  which 
they  occur. 


*  President  John  A.  H.  Keith,  Indiana,  Pennsylvania. 


Arithmetic. — Grade  V. — Fractions.  115 

See  p.  262;  fourth-grade  pupils  should  complete  the  outline 
through  B  under  II,  and  such  parts  of  C  as  are  needed,  although 
whatever  work  is  done  in  fractions  should  be  of  a  simple  nature. 

Grade  V. 

As  is  said  on  p.  263,  the  school  must  distribute  the  arithmetic 
subject-matter  so  that  pupils  who  leave  school  early  will  have  had 
time  to  secure  from  the  subject  two  things:  (1)  Knowledge  of  how 
needed  processes  should  be  done,  which  gives  children  a  sense  of 
power;  and  (2)  practice  in  using  each  new  acquisition  until  they 
have  perfect  control  over  it.  Therefore,  besides  doing  the  new 
work  of  the  grade,  it  is  quite  essential  that  all  power  gained  in  earlier 
grades  be  kept  up  to  standard.  This  means  systematic  though 
not  necessarily  daily  drill  on  the  fundamentals,  on  thought  pro- 
cesses involving  the  holding  of  images  while  ideas  are  related,  and 
upon  good  oral  and  written  expression.  The  proper  use  of  since, 
therefore,  hence,  if,  is  (instead  of  would  be  or  will  be),  each,  and 
other  needed  expressions,  should  be  fixed  early. 

The  reviews  should  include  the  re-teaching  of  facts  where  this 
is  necessary,  as  well  as  the  extension  of  principles  learned  in  earlier 
grades  to  more  complex  conditions.     Some  such  facts  are: 

(1)  Reading  and  writing  numbers  of  as  many  as  seven  to  ten  orders.  (2) 
The  larger  use  of  Roman  numerals  in  encyclopaedias,  chapter  numbers,  dates  on 
buildings,  etc.  (3)  The  addition  to  the  denominate-number  tables  already 
learned  of  such  facts  as  will  be  necessary  in  the  study  of  fractions  and  of  the 
problems  of  the  grade.  This  will  include  the  table  of  time  and  should  probably 
extend  to  a  study  of  the  relation  of  longitude  to  time  as  needed  in  geography. 
(4)  The  four  fundamental  processes  with  their  accompanying  number  facts.  (5) 
Knowledge  of  how  to  prove  the  correctness  of  results  in  mechanical  work  and 
how  to  check  thinking  by  making  rough  estimates  of  the  result.  (6)  Better  forms 
for  stating  problems  and  solutions,  as  thinking  grows  more  accurate.  (7)  Ability 
to  make  problems  from  real  situations,  and  to  interpret  problems  because  the 
situations  can  be  clearly  imaged  since  they  are  based  upon  children's  experiences 
either  direct  or  dramatic. 

The  new  work  of  the  grade  is  the  application  of  the  fundamental 

processes  to  fractions.     See  p.  262,  II,  C.     A  suggestive  outline  of 

steps  follows: 

Fractions. 

Note:  The  general  order  of  development  to  be  used  with  each  topic  is: 

(1)  Create  a  vague  and  then  a  definite  feeling  of  need  for  some  process. 

(2)  Teach  the  process  by  getting  as  many  suggestions  from  pupils  as  possible. 

(3)  Drill  on  the  mechanical  phases  until  children  have  control  over  them. 

(4)  Apply  knowledge  and  power  to  new  situations  to  prove  value  and  to  give  further  drill  in 
the  using  of  ideas. 

I.  Meaning. 

A.  Meaning  of  a  concrete  fraction. 

1.  In  popular  speech — a  piece,  part,  broken  section,  fragment,  etc. 

2.  Word:  how  related  to  fracture,  fragment,  and  fragile. 


116  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

3.  How  recognized  from  a  whole? 

a.  Only  by  knowledge  of  the  whole. 

(1)  Illustrated  with  a  rectangle,  which  may  be  a  whole  or  may 

be  half  of  a  square. 

(2)  Illustrated  in  many  life  situations,  where  little  parts  of 

things  are  interpreted  as  wholes. 

(3)  Illustrated  by  circles,  etc.,  where  the  whole  is  so  individual 

as  to  let  almost  any  fraction  of  it  be  recognized. 

B.  Meaning  of  the  topic,  fractions,  in  arithmetic. 

1.  Developed  from  social  situations,  because  of — 

a.  Need  of  economy,     b.  Need  of  accuracy,     c.  Need  of  beauty. 

2.  Measuring  and  comparing  pieces  of  things  with  one  another  and  with 

wholes  resulted  in  two  things: 

a.  Development  of  denominate-number  tables. 

b.  Topic  "fractions"  in  arithmetic. 

C.  Meaning  of  symbols  for  measured  fragments,  or  fractions. 

1.  Oral. 

a.  Terms  of  indefinite  comparison. 

(1)  Longer,  wider,  taller,  etc.     (2)  Shortest,  brightest,  etc. 

b.  Terms  of  definite  comparisons. 

(1)  Halves,  thirds,  sevenths.     (2)  Twice,  thrice,  seven  times. 

2.  Written. 

a.  The  fraction  as  a  whole. 

(1)  An  expressed  ratio  (as  of  3  inches  to  4  inches). 

(2)  An  expressed  division  to  be  done  (18  divided  by  23). 

(3)  A  quotient  (after  dividing). 

(4)  A  sign  of  partition — may  mean  three  quarters  of  one  whole 

or  it  may  mean  three  one-fourths,  each  one-fourth  taken 
from  a  different  whole. 

b.  The  terms  of  the  fraction,  etc. 

(1)  The  numerator.     (2)  The  denominator.     (3)  The  separat- 
ing bar. 
II.  Processes  employed. 

A.  With  small  fractions — such  as  halves,  fourths,  eighths,  thirds,  and  sixths. 

1.  Indefinite  relations  seen. 

2.  Definite  comparisons  made. 

a.  Recognition  of  parts  in  relation  to  wholes. 

(1)  Of  children  in  a  class,  books  on  a  table,  panes  in  a  window, 

crayon,  and  many  things  about  home  and  school. 

(2)  Of  geometric   figures,     (a)   Lines,      (b)    Rectangular  sur- 

faces,    (c)   Circles,     (d)   Solids. 

b.  Representation  of  definite  parts  by  written  symbols. 

c.  Reduction  or  changing  the  form  of  expressing  a  given  fractional 

value. 

(1)  Do  concretely — actually  cut  up  thirds  and  halves,  for  ex- 

ample, so  they  may  have  the  common  name,  sixths. 

(2)  Do  with  symbols  and  prove  by  concrete. 

(3)  Do  accurately  and  quickly  with  symbols.     Use  only  frac-* 

tions  that  can  be  reduced  by  inspection  of  denominators. 

d.  Addition  of  small  fractions.  f.  Multiplication. 

e.  Subtraction.  g.  Division. 

B.  With  larger  (or  any  size  of)  fractions — the  same  processes,  but  rules  or 

formulae  now  seem  to  be  needed  to  save  time.  Pupils  work  out  own 
rules  in  most  if  not  all  cases.  Begin  with  knowledge  of  processes  with 
smaller  fractions;  refer  to  the  concrete  to  keep  meanings  clear  and  to 
prevent  mere  "juggling  with  figures." 
1.  Reduction,  changing  the  form  only,  of  a  fraction,  or  of  any  number. 
a.  To  higher  terms. 

(1)  Develop  the  fact  that  to  multiply  by  1  does  not  change 

the  value  of  the  multiplicand. 

1X7  equals  ?     lXf  equals  ?     lXt  equals  ?     etc. 

(2)  One  may  be  written  in  various  ways.     Develop.     Children 

give  4/4;  7/7;  6/6;  99/99;  25/25;  etc. 


Arithmetic. — Grade  V. — Fractions.  117 

(3)  Teacher  points  to  magnitude  (f,  for  example),  and  asks, 

"How  many  fourths  in  this?"  "How  many  sixths?" 
"Eighths?"  Teacher  then  writes,  "1/2  equals  2/4;  1/2 
equals  3/6;  1/2  equals  4/8."  "The  value  is  unchanged 
in  each  case.  Which  form  of  1  has  been  used  as  a 
multiplier  in  each  case?"  (2/2  in  1st;  3/3  in  2d;  4/4  in  3d.) 

(4)  Try  with  other  magnitudes;  for  example,  how  many  sixths 

in  2/3?     Twelfths  in  2/3?     Eighths  in  3/4? 

(5)  Discover  what  determines  the  form  of  1  to  use  in  each  case. 

(The  name  or  denominator  of  the  new  fraction.)  "Then 
if  I  ask  you  to  change  2/3  into  15ths,  what  must  you 
do?     Why?" 

Note:  Cautions  to  teacher:  (1)  Be  thorough  in  this  step.     (2)  Do  not  let 
children  write  or  say  1/2X3  equals  3/6,  but  insist  upon  1/2X3/3  equals  3/6. 

(6)  Give  much  practice  until  children  can  finally  think  the 

form  of  1  without  writing  it. 

b.  To  lower  (or  lowest)  terms. 

(1)  Show  that  reduction  to  lower  terms  is  the  reverse  of  the 

above — 12/15-5-3/3  (a  form  of  1)  equals  4/5. 

(2)  Quick   practice-work    should    follow    until    children    can 

change  the  form  of  any  small  fraction  instantly  to  higher 
or  lower  terms. 

(3)  Apply  to  larger  fractions  and  give  much  practice.     Show 

how  one  may  divide  by  1  several  times  in  succession, 
as  in  reducing  192/240  to  lowest  terms. 

c.  To  an  integer  or  a  mixed  number. 

d.  To  a  fractional  form. 

(1)  Employed  with  whole  or  mixed  numbers  for  convenience. 

(2)  Some  times  called  "improper"  fractions,  but  not  fractions 

at  all — just  wholes  in  fractional  form. 

2.  Addition. 

a.  Applies  the  principles  of  addition  of  integers,  hence  reduction 

to  a  common  denominator  is  necessary. 

(1)  Found  by  inspection. 

(2)  Found  by  factoring  and  the  learning  how  to  secure  the 

least  common  multiple  (of  small  fractions  only), 
(a)   Rules  for  recognizing  a  number's  divisibility  by  2,  4, 
8,  5,  10,  3,  and  9,  easily  learned. 

b.  Formula  found. 

(1)  Reduce  fractions  to  be  added  to  a  common  denominator, 

which  becomes  the  denominator  of  the  sum. 

(2)  Add  numerators  of  the  "reduced"  fractions  for  the  sum's 

numerator. 

(3)  Reduce  the  sum  to  form  desired. 

c.  Work  for  neatness  of  form,  accuracy,  and  then  dispatch. 

d.  Apply  to  problems  in  merchantry — using  denominate-number 

tables,  making  out  bills  of  goods,  etc. 

3.  Subtraction. 

a.  Same  principles  as  those  learned  in  addition  of  fractions  and  in 

subtraction  of  integers. 

b.  Order  of  introducing  the  different  situations  in  subtraction. 

(1)  Fraction  from  fraction. 

(2)  Fraction  or  mixed  number  from  mixed  number  whose  frac- 

tional part  is  larger  than  the  fraction  in  the  subtrahend. 

(3)  Same,  but  with  fraction  in  minuend  smaller  than  fraction 

in  subtrahend,  so  that  the  student  must  take  a  one  of 
the  integer  and  change  it  to  a  fractional  form  before 
proceeding. 

(4)  Same  principle  applied  to  subtracting  a  fraction  or  mixed 

number  from  an  integer. 

c.  Make  applications  to  life  situations. 

4.  Multiplication. 

a.  Refer  to  simple  fractions. 


118  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

b.  Refer  to  use  of  multiplier  in  reducing  fractions,  about  which 

nothing  was  said  at  the  time. 

c.  Process  derived. 

(1)  Multiply  numerators  for  numerator  of  product. 

(2)  Multiply  denominators  for  denominator  of  product. 

(3)  Reduce  to  form  desired. 

(4)  Cancellation  shortens  the  process. 

d.  Different  forms  discussed. 

(1)   Fraction  by  fraction.     (2)   Fraction  by  whole  number. 

(3)  Fraction  by  mixed  number. 

(4)  Large  whole  number  by  fraction  or  mixed  number;  for  ex- 

ample,    6489 
25| 

e.  Drill. 

f.  Apply  to  problems  within  the  experience  of  the  pupils. 
5.  Division. 

a.  Natural  method  is  to  reverse  process  used  for  multiplication. 

Easy  when  divisions  produce  no  remainders;  when  remain- 
ders occur,  some  new  plan  becomes  necessary. 

b.  Method  of  reducing  to  a  common  denominator,  as  in  subtrac- 

tion, of  which  division  is  a  shortened  process. 

c.  Plan  of  inverting  terms  of  the  divisor  and  proceeding  as  in  mul- 

tiplication, invented. 

(1)  Fits  all  cases. 

(2)  Proved  correct  in  many  ways,  but  not  necessary  that  pupils 

should  prove  the  truth  each  time. 

d.  Drill  on  some  one  way  to  give  children  control  of  the  process. 

e.  Apply  principles  of  multiplication  and  division  so  as  to  secure 

the  "laws  of  fractions,"  namely: 

(1)  Multiplying  only  the  numerator  of  a  fraction,  multiplies 

the  fraction. 

(2)  Multiplying  only  the  denominator  of  a  fraction,  divides 

the  fraction. 

(3)  Dividing  only  the  numerator  of  a  fraction,   divides   the 

fraction. 

(4)  Dividing  only  the  denominator  of  a  fraction,   multiplies 

the  fraction. 

(5)  Performing  either  operation  by  the  same  number  on  both 

numerator  and  denominator  does  not  change  the  value 
of  the  fraction;  it  merely  reduces  the  fraction  to  another 
form. 

f.  Apply  to  problems  interesting  to  pupils. 

Note:  "Complex"  and  "compound"  fractions  involve  no  new  principles  and  need  not  be 
mentioned  unless  pupils  ask  for  them. 

Grade  VI. 

The  outline  of  Grade  V  should  be  read  with  care,  since  all  of 
that  work  must  be  kept  fresh  by  use  in  Grade  VI. 

The  new  work  of  the  grade  is  the  study  of  decimal  fractions,  a 
subject  requiring  only  a  brief  time  for  its  comprehension,  but  a 
long  time  for  its  use,  since,  besides  laying  a  firm  foundation  for 
percentage,  which  is  to  follow,  it  thoroughly  reviews  and  helps  to 
fix  the  work  of  the  preceding  grades  in  common  fractions  and  in 
the  four  fundamental  processes.  The  problems  selected  for  apply- 
ing the  principles  of  decimals  should  be  chosen  from  the  children's 
experience  in  their  home  environment.  (See  p.  262,  III,  B;  and 
page  263,  all  of  IV.)     A  brief  suggestive  outline  follows: 


Arithmetic. — Grade  VI. — Decimals.  119 

Decimal  Fractions. 

I.  Relation  of  decimal  fractions  to  decimal  numbers. 

A.  Our  whole  number-system  is  a  decimal  one. 

1.  One  in  a  given  place  equals  ten  ones  of  the  next  place  to  the  right. 

2.  One  in  a  given  place  equals  one-tenth  of  one  in  the  next  place 

to  the  left. 

3.  Place-names  of  integers  learned. 

B.  United  States  money  uses  both  decimal  integers  and  decimal  frac- 

tions (of  a  dollar),  separating  the  two  by  the  "decimal-point." 
(A  good  starting  place  for  decimal  fractions.) 

C.  Place-names  of  decimal  fractions  easy  to  get  in  relation  to  place- 

names  of  integers — tenths  to  tens;  hundredths  to  hundreds. 

II.  Relation  of  decimal  fractions  to  common  fractions. 

A.  Just  a  chosen  sort  of  common  fraction,  with  denominator  10,  100, 

or  any  power  of  10.  Usually  written  without  the  denomina- 
tor, and  given  place-value  through  the  use  of  the  decimal-point. 

B.  Reduction  of  common  fractions  to  decimal  fractions. 

1.  Use  of  10,  100,  etc.,  as  actual  denominators  in  earliest  reduc- 

tions, proving  that  only  old  principles  operate. 

2.  Discard  the  actual  denominators  and  learn  to  know  denomina- 

tion from  place-value. 

3.  Learn  how  to  "carry  out"  a  decimal  fraction  to  several  places. 

4.  Aliquot  parts  developed;  value  seen;  some  committed  to  mem- 

ory. 

III.  Reading  and  writing  of  all  sorts  of  decimals. 

A.  Reading  any  decimal  by  any  desired  decimal  name,  giving  the  right 

value  to  the  numerator;  for  example,  3.5  may  be  read:  Three  and 
five-tenths  (ones).  Thirty-five  tenths  (of  one).  Three  hundred 
fifty  hundredths  (of  one).     Thirty-five  hundredths  of  ten.     Etc. 

B.  Writing  a  number  in  several  forms  with  no   change  in  value;   for 

f        7  70  700 

example,  .07  =  .070  =  .0700,  etc.     \ =   = 

{      100         1000        10000 

C.  Writing  a  given  number — for  example,  872039 — five  times,  and  then 

putting  the  decimal-point  in  the  right  place  each  time  to  name 
the  whole:  ones,  hundredths,  ten  thousandths,  tenths. 

IV.  Fundamental  processes  applied  to  decimal  fractions  and  mixed  numbers. 

A.  Reduction — very  simple — rule  for. 

B.  Addition — no  new  principle. 

C.  Subtraction — no  new  principle. 

D.  Multiplication — actual   process   the   same   as  of  old.     Placing   the 

decimal-point  the  new  thing.  Rationalized  by  using  10,  100, 
etc.,  as  actual  denominators  and  making  a  rule. 

E.  Division — Like  division  of  integers  except  for  placing  the  decimal- 

point.  Again  use  ordinary  fractions  with  denominators  10,  100, 
etc.,  (1)  to  make  a  rule,  and  (2)  to  show  that  the  rule  is  true. 
Different  plans  for  pointing)off  (aside  from  the  mechanical  pro- 
cess of  dividing  the  numbers: 

1.  Multiplying  both  dividend  and  divisor  by  the  same  number  (a) 

to  make  the  divisor  an  integer;  (b)  to  make  both  divisor  and 
dividend  integers;  (c)  to  give  both  the  same  denomination. 

2.  First   planning   where   decimal-point   should   be   placed   in   the 

quotient  and  making  a  check  (vO  m  dividend. 

3.  Dividing  first  and  then  subtracting  number  of  places  in  divisor 

from  number  used  in  dividend  and  placing  point  to  accord. 

V.  Application  of  fractions,  both  common  and  decimal,  and  of  denominate- 

number  tables,  to  problems  found  in  all   forms  of    industry.     (See 
course  in  industry  for  complete  list,  a  few  of  which  are  here  suggested.) 

A.  Merchants'  bills. 

B.  Coal  hauling  and  cord-wood  selling. 

C.  Plastering,  papering,  and  painting. 

D.  Carpeting  rooms,  curtaining  windows,  covering  cushions,  etc. 

E.  House  planning  and  carpentry  processes. 

F.  Masonry,  and  excavating  of  cellars,  cisterns,  etc. 


120  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

G.  Cubical  contents  of  various  things — cisterns,  tanks,  rooms  (air  in), 
haystacks,  boxes,  coalbins,  etc. 

H.  Buying  lumber  for  manual-training  or  for  home  wood-work,  and 
hence  learning  how  to  measure  lumber. 

I.  Social  situations  in  the  school,  such  as  sending  a  Thanksgiving  basket 
to  a  deserving  poor  family,  or  a  doll-house  to  an  orphanage. 

J.  Learning  to  do  practical  banking,  such  as  opening  a  checking  ac- 
count, writing  checks,  balancing  the  check-book  and  the  bank- 
book; opening  a  savings  account,  or  a  "thrift"  account  (in  which 
as  little  as  one  cent  a  week  is  deposited),  finding  how  one's  sav- 
ings accumulate,  etc.*  (This  is  one  excellent  means  of  uniting 
the  arithmetic  of  the  year  with  civics  and  ethics.) 

K.  See  lesson  on  paying  distant  indebtedness,  p.  264. 

Mental  arithmetic,  checking  the  line  of  thought  through  making 
sensible  estimates  of  the  result,  and  other  valuable  features  of  lower- 
grade  work,  must  not  be  neglected. 

Note:  Every  effort  possible  is  made  to  lead  children  to  appreciate  arithmetic  as  a  tool,  usable 
in  solving  important  every-day  problems  in  life.  If  thought  wise  to  do  so,  teachers  may  now  in- 
troduce percentage,  since  it  is  just  a  special  kind  of  decimal  fraction,  with  denominator  always  100 
in  the  same  way  that  a  decimal  fraction  is  a  special  kind  of  common  fraction  expressed  by  other 
means  than  in  common-fraction  form.  However,  if  this  is  done,  only  two  problems  should  be 
taught,  (1)  that  of  finding  a  per  cent  of  some  number,  and  (2)  what  per  cent  (or  part,  expressed  as 
hundredths)  one  number  is  of  another.  Although  these  are  not  too  difficult  for  sixth  grade,  the 
whole  topic  of  percentage  if  left  for  seventh  grade  makes  in  the  fall  of  that  year  an  excellent  re- 
view of  common  and  decimal  fractions,  and  points  out  children's  abilities  in  the  use  of  the  funda- 
mental mechanical  processes,  so  that  they  and  the  teacher  know  on  what  to  drill. 

Grade  VII. 

Since  the  arithmetical  processes  are  by  this  time  well  known,  the 
remaining  work,  whether  it  be  done  in  one,  in  one-and-one-half,  or 
in  two  years,  consists  of  the  application  of  acquired  facts  and  of 
imaging  power  to  life-situations  within  the  pupils'  comprehension. 

In  every  line  of  industry  which  pupils  investigate  they  see  that 
those  who  are  engaged  in  the  business  need  accuracy  and  speed  in 
computation,  as  well  as  power  to  see  beyond  the  present.  If  prob- 
lems are  chosen  from  real  situations,  pupils  acquire  in  their  solution 
not  only  technical  skill,  but  also  a  better  appreciation  of  the  work 
of  others.  "It  is  the  mission  of  mathematics  in  the  grades  to  make 
a  large  contribution  to  the  general  knowledge"  as  well  as  to  the 
arithmetical  knowledge  of  children.  Imagination  is  cultivated  un- 
til pupils  can  put  themselves  into  others'  places.  Pupils  should 
delight  in  the  "valuable  thoughts  gained  from  arithmetic."  For 
example,  to  visit  a  mill  and  learn  how  wheat  is  tested  before  it  is 
bought;  what  price  is  paid  for  various  grades  of  the  grain;  what 
profit  is  made  on  the  different  mill  products;  what  the  machinery 
and  labor  cost;  how  many  men  are  employed  in  the  mill,  and  what 
specialty  each  has;  how  the  product  is  disposed  of;  what  place  sales- 
men or  commissioned  agents  have.  All  this  not  only  supplies 
plenty  of  problem  material  in  school,  but  gives  pupils  a  general 
knowledge  of  one  of  the  world's  industries,  which  must  have  a  future 
value  in  good  citizenship. 

*  The  Thrift  Service  Co.,  of  Rockford,  111.,  will  either  send  the  teacher  material  or  direct  him 
where  to  secure  it.     Ask  at  banks.     Note  new  "U.  S.  Thrift  Stamps." 


Arithmetic. — Grade  VII. — Topics  for  Study.  121 

Besides  keeping  up  to  a  standard  degree  of  facility  the  work  of 
earlier  grades*  viz.,  (1)  the  fundamental  processes  with  integers  and 
fractions,  both  common  and  decimal;  (2)  power  to  see  relationships; 
(3)  acceptable  expression  of  a  problem's  solution,  orally  or  in  writ- 
ing; and  (4)  assurance  of  whether  one  is  right  or  wrong  because  of 
well-controlled  means  of  checking  work;  the  seventh  year's  study 
of  arithmetic  should  probably  cover  the  following  topics: 

1.  A  little  study  of  roots  and  powers,  such,  for  example,  as  these: 

a.  Knowing,  as  one  knows  his  addition  or  multiplication  facts,  the  second  power  of  all 

numbers  from  1  to  20  inclusive. 

b.  Knowing,  for  the  sake  of  rapid  mental  estimating,  that  the  square  of  any  number 

ending  in  5  ends  in  25  and  that  the  digits  at  the  left  of  25  must  be  the  product  of 
the  number  represented  by  the  digit  (or  digits)  at  the  left  of  5  in  the  original 
number,  and  a  number  which  is  just  one  more  than  this — the  number  represented 
by  this  digit.  Illustration:  352—  1225;  that  is,  the  power  ends  in  25  and  the  digits 
to  the  left  of  25  are  the  product  of  3,  and  3  +  1  (or  4).  Note  other  cases  such  as 
1952  —  38025  (that  is  19  X  20)  with  25  annexed.  Pupils  are  thus  able  to  estimate 
products  which  they  cannot  accurately  secure  mentally.  For  example,  a  collect- 
or's returns  to  the  telephone  company  from  a  district  which  contains  127  sub- 
scribers each  of  whom  pays  $1.25  a  month  is  about  $156.25  (12  X  13  with  25  an- 
nexed, and  decimal-point  correctly  placed).  Since,  actually,  there  are  just  two 
more  subscribers  than  the  estimate  made  by  "squaring"  125,  the  pupil  can  add 
$2.50  to  the  estimate  and  thus  obtain  an  accurate  result  without  pencil  and  paper. 

c.  Knowing  perfectly  the  third  powers  of  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  10,  and  possibly  of  6,  7,  8,  and  9. 

d.  In  the  same  way  knowing  the  fourth  power  of  2,  3,  4,  5,  and  10. 

e.  Also  the  fifth  power  of  2  and  of  3. 

f.  Also  the  sixth  power  of  2. 

g.  Knowledge  of    how  to  extract  the  square  root  of  any  number,  if  some  need  of  this 

is  discovered  in  mensuration  calculations, 
h.   Knowledge  of  how  to  factor  so  as  to  get  the  approximate  (if  not  accurate)  third, 
fourth,  or  other  roots  that  are  only  rarely  needed. 

2.  Some  simple  geometric  or  mechanical  drawing  if  needed  in  mensuration 

problems.  For  example,  bisecting  and  trisecting  lines;  describing  a 
circle  with  a  given  radius  or  diameter;  constructing  an  equilateral 
triangle  of  a  given  size;  erecting  a  perpendicular  to  a  given  line  at 
any  desired  point;  and  so  on. 

3.  If  not  already  learned  in  lower  grades,  how  to  keep  accounts — farm,  house- 

hold, or  personal;  how  to  take  an  inventory  so  as  to  know  one's  finan- 
cial status;  how  to  make  out,  send,  collect,  and  receipt  bills;  how  to 
save  (thrift);  how  to  proceed  in  simple  banking  for  one's  self;  the  ad- 
vantages of  being  a  bank  depositor;  and  so  forth. 

4.  Percentage  and  such  applications  as  the  teacher  chooses  to  give  in  sev- 

enth grade,  probably — 

a.  Partnership,  without  time  as  an  element,  b.  Profit  and  loss.  c.  Discount,  d.  In- 
terest, with  the  making  of  notes;  giving,  recording,  and  releasing  mortgages;  and 
such  other  related  problems  as  the  pupils  can  well  understand. 

If  arithmetic  is  to  end  in  the  seventh  grade,  a  somewhat  greater 
variety  of  work  must  be  undertaken  than  is  necessary  if  a  half  or  a 
whole  year's  work  in  eighth  grade  is  to  follow.  All  the  topics  of 
elementary-school  arithmetic  beyond  the  sixth  grade  can,  by  varia- 
tion in  method  of  attack,  be  made  to  fit  either  seventh  or  eighth 
grade,  so  that  the  division  of  subject-matter  just  made  is  by  no 

*  See  pp.  292-295. 


122  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

means  hard  and  fast;  it  is  meant  to  be  merely  suggestive.  Pages 
262-263  show  the  general  line  of  work  to  be  done  in  both  grades 
seven  and  eight. 

As  was  said  on  p.  114,  percentage  is  the  study  of  only  one  sort  of 
decimal  fraction — a  sort  found  so  convenient  in  man's  adjustments 
to  social  conditions  as  to  warrant  its  being  made  a  separate  topic 
in  arithmetic. 

Method. — In  the  study  of  percentage,  there  is  little  need,  */  any, 
of  confusing  pupils  with  the  terms  base,  rate,  and  percentage,  or  the 
old-time  cases.  Of  course,  if  one  needs  to  use  the  words  rate  and 
percentage,  they  should  not  be  avoided.  Finding  the  per  cent  of  a 
number  is  only  a  new  way  of  asking  for  a  given  part  of  a  number 
the  method  of  solving  which  has  been  already  learned  in  fractions 
(both  common  and  decimal).  Frequently  to  say  hundredths  in- 
stead of  per  cent,  until  the  latter  word  has  a  real  content  to  the 
pupils,  will  tide  over  many  difficulties.  The  recognition  of  the 
fact  that  the  common  fractions  called  "aliquot  parts"  were  chosen 
because  the  equivalent  common  fractions  for  these  per  cents  were 
so  often  more  convenient  than  the  per  cents  themselves,  again 
makes  pupils  see  that  to  find  a  per  cent  of  a  number  is  no  different 
in  principle  from  finding  \,  \,  or  f  of  the  number. 

In  the  same  way,  through  common  fractions,  pupils  can  see 
what  it  means  to  find  what  per  cent  one  number  is  of  another.  Ex- 
amples similar  to  these  may  be  given  for  the  earliest  work: 

(1)  Eight  equals  what  part  of  24?     What  other  ways  may  we  give  this 

part?  Then,  in  quick  drill,  eight  equals  how  many  sixths  of  24? 
How  many  twenty-fourths  of  24?  How  many  twelfths  of  24?  How 
many  thirds  of  24?  How  many  hundredths  of  24?  Eight  equals 
what  per  cent  of  24? 

(2)  Six  equals  what  part  of  60?     Six  equals  how  many  tenths  of  60?     How 

many  twentieths?  How  many  sixtieths?  How  many  hundredths? 
What  per  cent? 

Finding  the  per  cent  which  one  number  is  of  another,  if  the 

teacher  is  pressed  for  time,  may  be  omitted  here  and  brought  up 

under  "investments ,"  in  eighth  grade. 

Since  several  very  excellent  modern  texts  in  arithmetic  are  arranged  to  apply 
percentage  to  social  situations  which  make  for  better  citizenship,  little  more  need 
be  said  on  the  method  side  of  the  subject.  Pages  265-267  of  this  Manual  contain 
one  plan  for  teaching  interest. 

Grade  VIII. 

Since  this  is  but  a  continuance  of  the  work  of  Grade  VII,  the 

plan  there  outlined  should  be  read  in  detail. 

The  new  topics  to  be  taken  up  are: 

1.  Commission. — Related  to  merchantry  or  to  exchange  of  products.  Note 
the  need  of  a  salesman,  agent,  or  commission  merchant.  Relate  to  geography 
and  note  the  world's  great  centers  for  handling  certain  products  (iron,  flour,  rail- 
road securities,  apples,  oranges,  rice,  coffee,  etc.) 


Arithmetic. — Grade  VIII.  123 

2.  Investments. 

a.  Savings  accounts  at  the  bank. 

(1)  Regular  amounts. 

(2)  "Thrift"  plans. 

(a)  Progressive  amounts. 

(b)  Reducing  amounts. 

b.  Notes  well  secured. 

c.  Buying  a  home  on  time  payments — through  a  realty  company,  through  a  building 

association,  through  a  "thrift"  savings  account,  etc. 

d.  Stocks  and  bonds. 

"The  subject  of  stocks,  as  taught  from  the  speculator's  standpoint,  should 
be  eliminated,  and  new  material  under  the  same  head  substituted,  the  new  material 
to  deal  with  the  new  line  of  cooperative  enterprises  now  so  common;  such  as 
creameries,  insurance  companies,  shipping  associations,  and  the  like.  In  the  same 
way,  eliminate  the  study  of  bonds  as  now  given,  and  under  the  new  topic  of  bonds 
teach  municipal  bonds,  state  bonds,  popular  subscriptions,  and  other  bonds  of 
this  nature."* 

"Pupils  should  be  taught  what  a  corporation  is,  its  chief  officers,  how  it  is  or- 
ganized, what  stocks  and  bonds  are,  and  how  dividends  are  declared  and  paid,  in 
so  far  as  such  knowledge  is  needed  by  the  general  public.  The  study  of  techni- 
calities of  the  broker's  office  should  not  be  undertaken  by  pupils  of  this  age.  The 
newspaper  stock  reports  furnish  an  excellent  basis  for  practical  problems.  Show 
how  the  nation,  the  state,  the  county,  and  the  city,  issue  bonds  as  means  of  bor- 
rowing money.  Show  how  bonds  may  be  purchased  as  an  investment. "f 
c.  The  interpretation,  in  all  investments,  of  data,  statistics,  and  graphs. 

3.  Insurance. 

a.  As  one  form  of  investment. 

b.  Personal  or  life  insurance — different  kinds. 

c.  Property  insurance  (see  pp.  267-271). 

4.  Taxation  for  the  sake  of  group-needs — local,  state,  and  national. 
"Problems  in  the  cost  and  support  of  the  Government  should  be  designed 

(a)  to  maintain  and  increase  efficiency  in  the  essential  processes  of  arithmetic 
through  constant  application;  and  (b)  to  convey  information  concerning  matters 
of  local  or  national  interest  of  which  all  citizens  should  have  some  knowledge. 
This  aspect  of  the  work  is  designed  to  correlate  with  the  work  of  the  civics  class. "J 

The  courses  in  all  of  the  eighth-grade  subjects  are  in  large  meas- 
ure designed  to  help  boys  and  girls  to  a  better  understanding  of  the 
vocational  life  into  which  they  are  soon  to  enter.  In  the  right  in- 
terpretation of  life  adjustments,  arithmetic  plays  an  important 
part.  Each  problem  demands  that  the  child  use  the  series  of  factors 
discussed  under  good  study  (pp.  263-266  and  283-285),  though 
here  differently  worded;  namely: 

1.  Understand — Read  and  reread;  image  the  situation;  relate  the  ideas  one 

to  another;  and  again  read  and  reread  if  necessary  until  the  problem 
is  understood. 

2.  Think — Analyze  the  situation;   think  clearly  what  is  wanted,   what  is 

known,  and  what  it  is  best  to  do  (that  is,  choose  a  good  method). 

3.  Do  it — Work  quickly  and  accurately;  in  computation  an  answer  is  right 

or  wrongs — there  is  no  partly  right  to  be  considered  in  the  test  of  doing 
the  work.  Next,  work  economically;  learn  business  methods  of  com- 
putation with  short  cuts  which  can  be  understood. 

4.  Check  the  result — Feel  sure  of  yourself — grow  independent  of  others'  esti- 

mates— do  it  again — do  it  another  way — know  that  you  can  be  de- 
pended upon. 

*  From  Bulletin  No.  51,  on  the  Elimination  of  Subject- Matter, 
t  From  1915  Cleveland,  Ohio,  Course  ot  Study, 
t  From  May,  1913,  Atlantic  Educational  Journal, 


124  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

5.  Apply  the  knowledge  gained  to  some  new  situation.  For  example,  after 
watching  a  man  put  coal  into  your  father's  cellar,  noting  how  often  he 
stoops,  how  heavy  a  shovelful  or  basketful  of  coal  he  lifts  at  each 
movement,  how  many  bushels  he  stows  away  in  an  hour,  what  energy 
he  has  expended,  and  so  on,  What  is  your  attitude  towards  the  man? 
Could  we  get  along  without  such  helpers?  Can  you  make  his  task 
any  easier? 

Method. — At  the  Francis  Parker  School,  in  Chicago,  some  eighth- 
grade  pupils  built  on  the  schoolgrounds  an  actual  playhouse,  thus 
learning  most  of  the  processes  mentioned  in  upper  grades.  This 
scheme  isn't  possible  in  all  localities,  but  the  following  plan,  par- 
tially executed  by  one  eighth-grade  teacher,*  is  feasible: 

This  plan  is  to  unify  all  the  work  outlined  for  the  grade  and  to  review  the 
work  of  earlier  grades  by  permitting  the  pupils  to  enter  imaginatively  into  the 
owning  and  furnishing  of  a  home.  The  buying  of  the  lot  necessitates  a  study  of: 
(1)  The  city's  industries.  (2)  Its  probable  development,  as  based  on  statistics 
about  the  city  itself  and  about  the  industries  most  prominent  there.  (3)  A 
forecasting  of  which  sections  will  prove  good  residence  sections  and  which  good 
business  sections — estimated  by  securing  data  on  recent  rates  of  property-in- 
crease or  -decrease  in  different  neighborhoods,  and  how  differently  a  man  looks  at 
residence  property  and  at  business  property  as  to  any  desired  increase  in  value, 
etc.  (4)  Methods  of  transferring  property;  the  legality  as  different  from  the 
ethics  of  written  over  verbal  promises;  the  need  of  a  clear  title,  and  of  a  recorded 
deed  to  prevent  future  trouble.  (5)  The  calculation  of  the  real-estate  agent's 
commission  and  of  fees  paid  to  the  notary,  the  recorder,  etc. 

Before  the  house  can  be  built  it  must  be  roughly  planned  to  suit  the  family 
which  is  to  live  in  it,  and  a  general  estimate  secured  from  some  contractor  or  book 
of  plans.  Then  follows  a  careful  study  of  plans  to  fit  the  finances  of  the  family. 
Then  follows  a  study  of  ways  and  means  of  paying  for  the  home,  since  it  can't 
be  bought  at  one  payment;  how  different  members  of  the  family  can  help;  and 
the  calculation  of  what  each  can  save  by  various  forms  of  investment.  Then  all 
pupils  draw  plans,  estimate  the  cost  of  excavating,  of  building  the  foundation; 
of  the  lumber,  plumbing,  heating,  cementing  the  basement,  laying  the  walks, 
and  so  on  for  all  the  details.  Before  or  after  all  plans  for  buildings  are  settled, 
the  building  laws  must  be  investigated,  and  a  permit  secured. 

To  hasten  over  further  details,  the  house  is  built;  insured;  assessed;  paid  for 
in  instalments  by  the  help  of  each  member  of  the  family;  and,  after  careful  cal- 
culation as  to  the  cost  of  papering,  carpeting,  etc.,  furnished  completely.  Dis- 
counts are  secured  on  some  articles  because  some  members  of  the  family  are  em- 
ployed in  stores  where  these  articles  are  sold.  Then  comes  the  running  of  the 
house;  the  budgeting  of  expenses;  the  keeping  of  accounts,  including  what  is 
saved  by  the  various  members  of  the  family  who  learn  how  to  run  the  furnace 
economically;  how,  in  spare  hours,  to  clean  the  trap  in  a  sink-drain,  to  pack  a 
faucet,  to  repair  a  screen  or  an  occasional  broken  glass,  to  paint  a  porch,  to  cook, 
sew,  or  raise  vegetables  and  chickens. 

Accounts  are  balanced  once  a  month  to  see  what  each  has  been  able  to  con- 
tribute— that  is,  what  per  cent  of  his  earnings;  what  per  cent  of  these  same  earn- 
ings had  to  be  spent  in  clothing,  in  recreation,  in  further  study  or  self-growth, 
and  the  like. 

*  Miss  Violet  Melander,  Winona  Normal  School. 


Science.  125 

When  the  lines  of  thought  thus  opened  up  do  not  carry  with  them  sufficient 
arithmetic  to  warrant  the  use  of  the  arithmetic  time  for  their  discussion  they 
are  turned  over  to  the  civics  or  ethics  period,  for  children  can  there  calculate  the 
social  and  immaterial  returns  which  each  member  of  the  family  receives  from 
this  investment  in  a  home.  In  whose  name  should  the  home  be?  Who  should 
inherit  it?  Why?  What  relation  does  participation  in  the  home-making  bear 
to  the  benefits  obtained?  What  rights,  duties,  and  privileges,  has  each  member 
of  the  family?  How  does  the  hard  work  expended  in  getting  this  home  make 
you  feel  about  destroying  property  at  Hallowe'en?     And  so  forth,  without  end. 

What  to  expect  by  the  end  of  the  eighth  grade. — That  pupils  show 
100%  efficiency  in  the  standard  tests  selected  to  be  used.*  That 
pupils  can  check  their  own  work  by  some  certain  means.  That 
pupils  are  able  to  image  situations  and  to  see  relationships  between 
ideas  or  statements  in  situations  of  which  they  may  reasonably  be 
expected  to  have  some  knowledge.  That  they  use  common  sense 
rather  than  blindly  attempt  to  recall  what  is  to  them  some  mean- 
ingless rule  or  formula.  That  they  persist  till  the  problem  is  con- 
quered. Whether  pupils  know  any  algebra  or  not,  they  may  well 
have  learned  to  use  x  (or  any  other  letter)  to  represent  the  sought 
or  unknown  quantity  in  a  problem.  Whether  they  can  state  any 
laws  of  equations  or  not,  they  should  have  learned  to  use  these 
laws  through  practice  in  solving  problems  according  to  a  good  form 
developed  from  accurate  thinking. 


III.— SCIENCE. 

Through  the  race's  efforts  at  adjustment  to  the  "material  world," 
there  have  developed  two  very  important  and 'closely  related  sub- 
jects, Science  and  Industry.  These  utilize  a  common  field  of  ac- 
tivities; but,  while  Industry  studies  the  processes  involved  so  as  to 
develop  skill  in  the  worker  and  to  secure  a  saving  of  time,  energy, 
and  capital,  Science  hunts  for  underlying  laws  or  principles,  and 
organizes  around  these  as  a  core  the  knowledge  which  the  race  has 
accumulated. 

With  the  advance  of  civilization  and  the  consequent  steady  rise 
of  new  problems,  with  the  increasing  interdependence  of  men  and 
nations,  science  has  become  differentiated  into  specialized  subdivi- 
sions so  numerous  as  to  preclude  the  possibility  of  one  individual's 
knowing  thoroughly  more  than  a  small  fraction  of  modern  science. 

The  majority  of  men  are  impelled,  by  their  interests  as  well  as 
by  their  feeling  of  need  in  life,  to  secure  a  general  knowledge  of  the 
elements  of  several  sciences  rather  than  to  confine  themselves  to 
intensive  work  on  one.     Therefore  it  is  that  schools,  whose  choice 

*  See  pp.  292-295,  Chapter  on  Measuring  Results. 


126  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

of  subject-matter  must  fit  race  needs, — and,  in  particular,  elemen- 
tary schools,  whose  pupils  have  neither  the  background  nor  the 
habits  of  work  necessary  for  an  intensive  study  of  science, — must 
select  certain  typical  and  usable  phases  of  all  science.  For  this 
extensive  and  therefore  necessarily  elementary  study  of  science,  no 
single  name  has  been  consistently  employed.  Elementary  Science 
would  be  the  best  name  to  use,  did  it  not  already  carry  a  narrower 
meaning  which  excludes  geography.  It  has  therefore  seemed  nec- 
essary in  this  course  of  study  to  make  three  divisions  of  the  general 
topic:  A.  Geography,  from  whose  field  material  is  selected  and  called 
by  the  generic  name,  geography,  although  it  is  no  more  the  real  sci- 
ence of  geography  than  language  is  grammar,  or  than  nature-study 
is  botany  or  physics.  B.  Nature-study,  selected  from  the  wide  fields 
of  the  biological  and  physical  sciences.  C.  Physical  education, 
made  to  include  material  chosen  from  several  fields. 

A.— GEOGRAPHY. 

The  present  meaning  of  geography,*  the  modern  methods  of 
teaching  the  subject,  and  the  subject-matter  now  selected  to  be 
taught,  give  geography  high  rank  among  educative  materials  for 
elementary-school  purposes. 

Geography  no  longer  means  mere  location  of  natural  features, 
cities,  and  boundaries.  It  no  longer  means  an  isolated  study  of  the 
earth's  physical  features  nor  of  man's  distribution  over  the  earth's 
surface.  It  divides  itself  into  two  main  sciences,  physiography 
and  ontography,  the  latter  subdividing,  according  to  Tower,f  into 
three  divisions,  the  last  of  which  includes  industrial,  commercial, 
and  political  geography.  In  all  these  the  common  element  is  rela- 
tionship, with  emphasis  on  the  interrelationship  of  man  and  his 
material  environment.  How  man  adjusts  himself  to  his  surround- 
ings, how  he  utilizes  the  forces  of  nature  for  his  and  his  fellows' 
good,  how  in  part  through  his  response  to  this  material  world  he 
attains  highest  self-realization — these  make  up  the  meaning  of 
modern  geography. 

Methods  of  teaching  have  changed  as  much,  if  not  so  rapidly, 
as  has  the  meaning  of  geography.  No  longer  are  capitals  and  their 
locations  sung;  no  longer  are  tracing-lessons  the  main  form  of  recit- 
ing; mere  memoriter  work  from  a  text  is  a  thing  of  the  past.  Teach- 
ers now  propose  to  their  pupils,  or,  still  better,  lead  pupils  to  pro- 
pose for  themselves,  "problems"  or  "projects"  the  working  out  of 
which   demands  all  locative,   physiographic,   and   statistical  facts 

*  For  generous  help  on  this,  as  well  as  for  valuable  constructive  criticism  on  the  whole  topic, 
the  author  is  deeply  indebted  to  Mr.  George  J.  Miller,  Secretary  "National  Council  of  Geography 
Teachers,"  and  Professor  of  Geography,  State  Normal  School,  Mankato,  Minn. 

f  Article  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  American  Geographical  Society,  November,  1910. 


Geography. — Grades  I,  II,  and  III.  127 

needing  to  be  known.  By  helping  intermediate-grade  children  to 
reason  from  effect  to  cause,  the  teacher  leads  them  to  build  up  a 
body  of  geographic  principles  found  to  be  permanently  valuable  in 
making  life  adjustments.  In  older  grades,  to  test  the  pupils'  un- 
derstanding of  these  principles,  as  well  as  to  give  them  practice  in 
applying  knowledge,-the  teacher  suggests  problems  whose  solutions 
demand,  first,  reasoning  from  cause  to  effect,  and,  second,  'careful 
checking  of  inferences  by  the  securing  of  facts  on  the  subject  from 
reliable  authorities. 

The  subject-matter  of  the  elementary-school  course  can  be  briefly 
outlined  as  follows: 

I.  Man's  material  environment. 

A.  Inanimate. 

1.  Land. 

a.  Surface.  b.  Soil.  c.  Minerals. 

2.  Water,  on  and  within  the  earth. 

3.  Atmosphere. 

a.  Temperature.  b.  Movements.  c.  Moisture. 

(All  more  or  less  dependent  on  the  earth's  planetary  relations.) 

B.  Animate. 

1.  Plant  life.  2.  Animal  life. 

(Both  dependent  on  the  inanimate  environment  and  on  each  other  until 

man  intervened.) 
[Result:  Physiography.] 

II.  Man's  adjustment  to  his  material  environment. 

A.  In  securing  the  fundamentals  of  life:  food,  shelter,  clothing. 

1.  In  their  natural  forms. 

2.  In  changed  forms  as  man  invents  ways  and  means  of  overcoming 

obstacles  or  of  utilizing  those  which  cannot  be  conquered. 
.[Result:  Industrial  geography.] 

B.  In  finding,  on  the  earth's  surface,  the  location  suited  to  man's  needs, 

ambitions,  or  temperament,  and  in  forming  governments  to  fit  the 
various  groups  thus  separated. 
[Result:  Political  geography.] 

C.  In  cooperating  with  fellow  man  no  matter  how  inaccessible  he  may  appear 

to  be. 
[Result:  Commercial  Geography.] 

Each  subdivision  as  a  science  is  beyond  elementary-school  pu- 
pils, yet  each  contains  much  that  they  can  comprehend  and  need 
to  know  for  both  immediate  and  future  adjustment  to  their  envi- 
ronment. 

Grades  I,  II,  and  III. 

When  children  begin  going  to  school,  thus  regularly  leaving  and 
returning  to  their  homes,  home  takes  on  a  new  meaning,  and  may, 
consequently,  well  be  made  the  core  of  whatever  geography-work 
is  done  in  grades  I,  II,  and  III. 

In  grades  I  and  II,  geography  is  not  differentiated  from  the  other 
subdivisions  of  science,  and  is,  therefore,  not  outlined  in  detail. 
Many  geographic  facts  are  incidentally  acquired,  even  if  they  are 
not  deliberately  taught,  in  connection  with  nature-study,  excur- 
sions, physical  education,  literature,  and  other  daily  experiences 


128  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

both  at  home  and  in  school.  Since  the  teacher  must  avoid  forcing 
upon  pupils  her  own  organization,  only  two  problems  are  proposed, 
and  these  are  meant  to  be  merely  suggestive  of  those  geographic 
facts  which  will  naturally  be  gathered  by  the  end  of  the  second 
grade. 

Problem  I. — How  the  family  adjusts  itself  to  diurnal  changes. 

1.  Hours  of  rising. 

a.  In  relation  to  daylight. 

(1)  Cause  of  returning  day.     A  general  answer,  the  rising  sun — no 

scientific  explanation  attempted, 
(a)   Directions — known   by  the  sun's  rising  in   the  east;    by 
length  and  direction  of  shadows  cast. 

(2)  Dawn. 

b.  In  relation  to  a  time-piece. 

(1)  The  clock. 

(2)  Other  ways  of  telling  time. 

(a)  Shadows — length  and  direction. 

(b)  Hourglass. 

(c)  Sundial. 

2.  Preparation  for  the  day  (also  related  to  industry  and  hygiene). 

a.  Father's  preparations,     b.  Mother's,     c.   Children's. 

3.  The  daily  routine  of  adjustments — tasks,  meals,  school,  father's  business, 

etc.     Special  house-work  for  different  week  days.     Why?     (Related 
to  thrift  and  to  hygiene.) 

4.  Occasional  variations  in  this  routine — as  for  birthdays,  holidays,  guests, 

or,  perhaps,  illness  in  the  family. 

5.  The  end  of  the  day. 

a.  Sunset,  dusk,  night. 

b.  Why  earlier  in  valleys  than  on  plains  or  hills? 

c.  Moon  and  stars  for  light — compare  to  sunlight — direction  as  known 

by  north  star  through  "Great  dipper." 

6.  Preparation  for  the  night. 

a.  The  evening  "chores"  or  "tasks." 

b.  The  care  of  animals,  if  there  are  any  about  the  home. 

c.  The  care  of  buildings — doors  shut;  some  locked  because  of  wind  or 

rainstorms,  minks,  foxes,  etc. 

d.  The  fire — covered  or  let  die  out — kindling  and  other  material  col- 

lected for  quickly  making  new  fire  in  the  morning. 

7.  Hours  of  retiring,  and  why. 

a.  The  need  of  sleep  and  rest  (related  to  hygiene). 

b.  Children's  hours. 

c.  Parents'  hours. 

d.  Variations  on  occasion. 

Problem  II. — How  the  family  adjusts  itself  to  seasonal  changes. 

1.  In  relation  to  food. 

a.  Selection  of  in  different  seasons.     (Expand  as  desired.) 

b.  Original  sources  of — planting,  cultivating,  harvesting;  hunting,  fish- 

ing. 

c.  Preserving  and  storing  foods — home  methods;    factory  methods,  if 

some  food-plant  can  be  conveniently  visited. 

d.  Stores — buying  and  selling  food:  from  near-by  regions;  from  foreign 

lands. 

2.  In  relation  to  clothing. 

a.  To  fit  changing  seasons  and  weathers — heat,  cold,  rain,  snow,  hail, 

wind.     (Such  study  of  each  as  children  seem  to  want — not  any 
finished  study  of  these  elements.) 

b.  Recognition  of  different  materials — cotton  (and  perhaps  linen),  wool, 

silk,  rubberized  goods,  leather,  and  fur. 

c.  What  the  family  does  in  making  clothing  (related  to  home  industry). 

d.  In  cleansing  clothing  (related  to  hygiene). 

e.  Need  of  warmer  bedding  (that  is,  night  clothing)  in  winter. 


Geography. — Grades  I,  II,  and  III. — Problems.        129 

3.  In  relation  to  shelter  and  home  comforts. 

a.  Changes  in  living  with  different  seasons — from  tents  to  warm  houses, 

or  from  much  porch  living  to  indoor  living  as  winter  approaches. 
Relative  value  of  different  materials  for  house-building  to  suit 
different  climates  (or  seasons,  or  even  weathers) — log,  lumber, 
brick,  stone,  stucco,  etc. 

b.  How  the  home  is  planned  to  meet  family  needs — living-room,  dining- 

room,  kitchen,  sleeping-rooms,  cellar,  and  so  on.  (Children 
should  be  encouraged  to  make  leaf-houses  in  the  yard  or  to  lay 
pegs  or  blocks  on  desks  to  outline  floor  plans  of  their  own  homes. 
This  leads  to  map-work  in  third  grade  when  pupils  make  plans 
or  maps  of  the  schoolroom  and  yard;  of  stores,  excursions,  and 
villages.) 

c.  Preparation  of  the  house  for  winter — storm-doors  and  -windows, 

banked  foundation,  etc. 

d.  Heating  apparatus  put  up  or  overhauled — fuel  secured  and  prepared 

against  stormy  and  cold  weather. 

e.  Thermometer — weather-vane — their  uses. 

f.  Sunshine — changing  amount  of  in  different  seasons;  weather  records 

for  each  season  kept. 

g.  Lights — kinds  used  in  different  families — care  of. 

4.  In  relation  to  daily  work. 

a.  Any  change  in  father's  work?  In  mother's  work?  In  children's  work? 

b.  Effect  on  the  family  work  of  having  the  children  in  school. 

c.  The  animal  helpers  and  pets  about  the  home:  Do  they  require  more 

or  less  Care  in  certain  seasons?  Do  they  perform  more  or  less 
service  then? 

5.  In  relation  to  play,  sport,  or  recreation. 

a.  What  father  and  mother  play  in  different  seasons.     (Indoor  games, 

outdoor  games,  reading,  entertainments,  picnics,  etc.)  (What 
children  can  do  to  help  mother  and  father  have  a  good  time.) 

b.  What  children  play  in  different  seasons —   (1)   Related  to  nature- 

study — collecting  flowers,  ferns,  leaves,  berries  or  seeds,  nuts, 
sands,  pebbles,  cocoons,  etc.  (2)  Related  to  physical  education 
— marbles,  kite-flying,  running  games,  skating,  sledding,  swim- 
ming, etc.  (3)  Related  to  home  life — toys,  dolls,  checkers,  par- 
cheesi,  guessing  games,  puzzles,  reading,  story-telling,  holiday 
celebrations,  etc. 

Note:  In  grade  III  the  differentiation  of  geography  from  related  topics  may  or  may  not  be 
made,  as  best  suits  local  school  needs.  Although  such  segregation  is  here  made,  it  is  done  to  meet 
a  need,  strongly  felt  in  rural  schools,  of  uniting  certain  grades  in  geography  and  history,  or  of 
alternating  the  two  subjects.  A  city  school  may  give  the  work  as  here  planned,  or  may  postpone 
all  third-grade  geography  until  fourth  grade,  since  what  is  outlined  can  easily  be  done  in  shorter 
time  by  children  a  year  older.  Rural  schools  may  follow  one  or  both  of  the  following  plans:  (1) 
Alternate  recitations  by  the  day  or  week  in  geography  and  history,  since  the  courses  are  kept  fairly 
parallel  throughout,  or  (2)  take  the  work  outlined  in  both  history  and  geography  for  the  odd- 
numbered  grades  in  the  odd-numbered  school  years,  and  the  work  outlined  for  the  even-numbered 
grades  in  the  even-numbered  school  years.  (For  example,  third  and  fourth  grades  will  together 
recite  fourth-grade  geography,  in  the  school  year  beginning  September,  1916.  The  year  follow- 
ing, both  classes  will  study  the  third-grade  outlines;  that  is,  the  fourth  grade  of  1916  will,  in  1917 
take  fifth-grade  work,  whereas  the  third  grade  of  1916,  which  becomes  the  fourth  grade  in  1917, 
having  already  done  fourth-grade  work,  will,  with  the  regular  third  grade  of  that  year,  take  third- 
grade  work.)  Of  course  such  alternation  affects  the  method  and  the  amount  of  work  covered, 
since,  when  pupils  of  a  lower  grade  must  do  the  work  of  a  higher  before  they  have  had  their  own 
class-work  as  a  foundation,  certain  loose  ends  have  to  be  gathered  up,  and  the  method  of  attack 
must  be  changed  to  suit  class  needs.  This  disadvantage  is  outweighed,  in  rural  schools,  by  a  sav- 
ing of  time;  besides,  since  there  will  often  be  only  five  or  six  pupils  in  the  combined  two  grades, 
the  teacher  can  give  them  considerable  individual  attention.  The  plan  in  this  Course  of  Study 
makes  possible  the  combination  of  third  grade  with  fourth,  fifth  with  sixth,  and  seventh  with 
eighth,  in  either  geography  alone,  history  alone,  or  both  geography  and  history  if  necessary. 

Grade  III. — The  geographical  concepts  to  be  gained  by  third-grade  pupils, 
like  those  gained  by  first-  and  second-grade  children,  grow  out  of  home  and  com- 
munity problems,  and  must  be  tested  by  the  principle  which  defines  all  geogra- 
phy— man's  response  or  adjustment  to  his  environment. 

The  two  problems  given  under  first-  and  second-grade  work  may  now  be 
expanded  to  include  the  larger  family-life  known  as  community  life — the  "four- 
corners"  group  of  homes  or  stores,  the  village,  or  the  city.      Besides  thinking 


130  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

about  what  his  own  family  does,  the  child  now  becomes  interested  in  the  lives  of 
his  companions'  families,  particularly  if  they  differ  from  that  of  his  own.  What 
the  uncles,  big  brothers,  distant  cousins,  and  others,  do  to  make  a  living  and  to 
help  others  are  problems  whose  answers  all  children  love.  Although  the  study 
of  industries  may  closely  correlate  with  this  work,  when  the  geography  attitude  is 
desired,  processes  must  take  second  rank,  and  the  problem  of  how  and  why  man 
adjusts  himself  to  his  environment  in  this  particular  way  must  be  kept  to  the  fore. 
Third-Grade  Problems:  According  to  the  community  using  the  course,  selec- 
tions from  the  following  groups  of  problems  will  be  differently  made,  or  at  any 
rate  differently  emphasized: 

A.  What  natural  resources  does  the  farmer  utilize?     How  does  he  utilize  them, 

to  support  his  family?  How  does  each  member  of  the  family  help?  What 
must  he  buy  from  others?  What  has  he  to  sell?  How  does  he  receive 
what  he  buys  and  deliver  what  he  sells?  What  helpers  (animal,  especially) 
does  the  farmer  employ?  How  does  each  help?  What  care  must  the 
farmer  give  each?  After  a  typical  farm  has  been  visited,  a  map  of  the 
farm  should  be  made,  showing  location  and  comparative  sizes  of  the  dif- 
ferent fields;  of  pastures,  wood,  house  portion,  roads,  kinds  of  fences,  and 
whatever  will  later  be  of  value  to  children  in  interpreting  maps  or  in  know- 
ing about  the  farmer's  methods  of  utilizing  natural  resources,  or  of  trans- 
porting his  excess  products.  A  sand-table  reproduction  of  the  farm  helps 
to  clinch  points  learned  and  further  to  interpret  the  map  made. 

B.  What  does  the  miller  use  in  his  environment  to  support  his  family?     How 

does  he  serve  others?  A  visit  to  the  mill  may  bring  out  the  problem  of 
its  location — why  near  water?  Why  in  town?  Why  in  our  state?  A 
map  of  the  route  traversed  in  the  excursion,  or  of  at  least  one  floor  of  the 
mill,  may  continue  interest  in  map-making  and  map-interpreting. 

C.  The  answer  to  the  question,  "What  is  done  with  the  flour?"  leads  to  a  study 

of  how  the  baker  earns  a  livelihood  and  at  the  same  time  helps  others. 
The  need  of  cleanliness  in  baking  and  in  delivering  bread  should  be  em- 
phasized. A  block  map  of  the  village  may  now  be  begun  with  the  places 
visited  marked  in  special  ways. 

D.  The  stores:  general,  or,  if  the  town  is  large,  special, — such  as  a  grocery,  meat- 

market,  milk-depot,  dry-goods  store,  shoe-shop,  harness-shop,  and  furni- 
ture store.     After  each  visit,  pupils  may  make  maps  of  the  store  or  fac- 
tory, or  even  make  miniature  stores  from  pasteboard  boxes.     These  stores 
may  have  the  "goods"  arranged  as  they  were  in  stores  visited  or  in  ways 
thought  to  be  better. 
Note:  Take,  for  example,  the  local  market,  general  store,  or  grocery:*   (1)  What  are  the  vari- 
ous articles  which  can  be  purchased  here?      (Vegetables,  fruits,  meats,  fish,  flower-seeds  and  bulbs, 
potted  plants,  etc.)      (2)   Make  a  list  of  all  that  came  from  surrounding  territory;  that  came  from 
distant  lands.      (3)   How  were  the  various  products  brought  to  the  store?      (Transportation;  men 
necessary;  care  of  produce  in  transit,  etc.)      (4)   Care  of  produce  at  market  to  keep  it  wholesome 
(sanitary  regulations).      (5)   Transporting  the  products  to  the  children's  homes — care. 

Arithmetic  drills  may  be  motivated  by  such  visits;  while  letters  to  ask  permission  to  visit 
the  merchant  or  worker,  as  well  as  letters  of  thanks  after  the  children  return,  become  a  strong 
incentive  to  good  language-work,  penmanship,  and  spelling,  so  that  the  excursion  may  legitimately 
use  more  than  mere  geography  time  on  the  program. 

E.  How  the  miner  secures  food,  shelter,  clothing,  and  pleasure,  for  himself  and 

family;  how  hard  he  works;  what  risks  he  runs;  what  he  does  for  the  world; 
are  problems  of  vital  import  to  many  children  in  Minn,  (and  other  states). 

F.  The    builders — carpenters,    masons,    blacksmiths,    tinsmiths,    plumbers — are 

next  to  be  studied. 

G.  The  men  who  supply  the  builders  with  their  materials, — that  is,  lumbermen, 

sawyers,  quarrymen,  brickmakers,  and  manufacturers, — form  a  new  group 

to  be  studied,  each  with  problems  to  be  expanded,  if  they  are  close  to  the 

children's  lives. 
H.  What  doctors,  ministers,  and  teachers,  do  for  the  community  as  they  earn 

their  life  necessities. 
I.  Transportation  companies  and  their  agents,  who  aid  all  the  workers  to  secure 

or  to  dispose  of  their  products;  post-office  employees;  freight  and  express 

agents;  bankers,  who  help  men  to  save  money  and  to  pay  distant  bills; 

all  these  need  to  be  recognized  as  valuable  members  of  the  community. 
*  From  the  Ohio  Elementary  Course  of  Study. 


Geography. — Grade  IV. — Outline.  131 

J.  The  firemen,  policemen,  street  or  road  commissioners,  and  such  other  members 
of  the  community  as  children  have  need  of  knowing,  should  be  given  due 
attention. 
K.  Contrast  the  country,  where  various  forms  of  farming  are  the  means  of  living, 
with  the  town,  where  manufacturing  and  trading  are  the  main  forms  of 
human  response.     A  typical  town  or  city  should  be  visited,  if  possible,  so 
that  pupils  may  know  at  first  hand  the  various  activities.     Compare  coun- 
try roads  with  city  streets;  lighting  and  heating  in  the  country  with  the 
same  problem  in  the  city;  the  bountiful  garden  on  the  farm  with  the  tiny 
or  no  garden  in  the  city;  the  kinds  of  animal  helpers  and  pets  to  be  had 
in  both  places,  with  the  care  of  the  same. 
If  the  school  is  located  within  excursion  distance  of  two  towns  or  cities,  one 
may  be  visited  and  studied  as  indicated.     Then,  before  visiting  the  second,  the 
children  can  apply  their  new  knowledge  by  interpreting  a  map  of  the  second  city, 
planning  what  to  see  there  and  how  to  see  these  things  with'the  greatest  economy 
of  time,  effort,  and  expense.     Appointing  guides  or  committees  to  engineer  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  trip  will  motivate  careful  and  intelligent  map-study,  selection 
of  points  of  interest,  and  judgment  in  carrying  out  details. 

Grade  IV. 
(Read  note  preceding  grade  III,  as  well  as  discussion  under  grade  III.) 

Through  solving  the  problem  of  how  we  secure  the  necessities 
and  luxuries  found  in  our  homes  and  not  produced  in  our  locality, 
fourth-grade  pupils  are  imaginatively  led  into  distant  lands.  There 
they  learn  how  different  peoples  respond  to  their  various  environ- 
ments so  as  to  secure  food,  shelter,  and  clothing  for  themselves  and 
still  produce  the  articles  we  desire;  how  they  dress,  play,  and  live 
daily;  how  and  what  they  eat,  as  well  as  what  they  think,  read,  and 
say.  Children  thus  get  their  first  view  of  the  world  as  a  whole, 
learning  of  its  shape;  of  the  division  of  its  surface  into  the  various 
oceans  and  continents;  and  of  the  modes  of  communication,  trans- 
portation, and  travel,  employed  between  us  and  these  distant  peo- 
ples. They  recognize  how  dependent  men  are  upon  one  another, 
and  hence  how  truly  men  are  "brothers." 

The  method  of  work  should  emphasize  human  activities,  although 
children  incidentally  learn  that  these  activities  are  conditioned 
largely  by  the  climate,  soil,  and  topography,  of  the  regions  studied. 
Although  pupils  must  not  be  forced  to  generalize,  nor  permanently 
to  organize  the  details  which  they  are  gathering,  the  teacher  may 
be  helped  by  the  outline  given  below: 

A.  The  earth's  shape  and  movements. 

1.  The  story  of  how  men  learned  the  truth  about  the  earth's  shape  and   mo- 

tions. 

2.  Effect  of  the  earth's  shape  and  of  its  movements  in  relation  to  the  sun, 
upon — 

a.  Diurnal  changes.  b.  Seasonal  changes. 

3.  The  temperature  belts. 

a.  Hot  belt. 

(1)  Location. 

(2)  Climatic  features,  temperature,  winds,  rainfall. 

(3)  Plant  life  of  the  zone. 

(4)  Animal  life  of  the  zone,  and  the  interdependence  of  plant  and 

animal  life. 


132  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

(5)   People  of  the  zone,  and  their  dependence  on  (2),  (3),  and  (4). 

b.  Warm  belts.     (Same  five  points  as  those  above.) 

c.  Cold  belts.     (Same  five  points  again.) 
4.  Direction. 

a.  On  the  earth's  surface. 

b.  On  maps  of  the  earth's  surface. 

B.  Land  masses  (or  continents). 

1.  Location  of  each. 

2.  Relative  size  and  importance  to  us. 

3.  Main  physical  features  of  each.     (A  chance,  if  local  conditions  are  suit- 

able, to  teach  the  more  usual  land  and  water  forms.) 

4.  Important  human  types  found  on  each. 

a.  Where  located  on  the  continent. 

b.  How  adjusting  themselves  to  their  surroundings.     What  they  wear, 

eat,  and  have;  how  they  work;  what  they  produce;  what  they 
play  and  think;  how  they  help  us;  what  we  do  or  can  do  for 
them;  what  landscapes  they  look  upon;  what  flowers  and  animals 
they  fear  or  love,  or  train  for  helpers;  in  brief,  what  homes  in 
other  lands  are  like. 

Note:  Since  most  of  the  foreign  homes  studied  disclose  more  primitive  ways  of  doing  things 
than  those  employed  in  our  local  American  communities,  this  study  becomes  especially  valuable  school 
subject-matter:  (1)  Children  understand  the  simpler  modes  of  life,  even  though  they  live  in  the 
midst  of  complexity.  They  revel  in  the  constructive  work  suggested  by  making  in  miniature  on 
the  sand-table,  or  in  the  large  in  a  corner  of  the  room,  the  homes  of  the  different  race-types  studied; 
or,  if  neither  of  these  is  possible,  in  doing  just  one  or  two  of  the  things  done  by  these  "brothers" 
and  "sisters"  who  live  under  different  conditions — such  as  weaving  a  mat  with  Gemila,  or  making 
clay  animals,  a  feather-duster,  or  a  leather  ball  with  Louise.*  (2)  To  get  dramatically  the  lives 
of  people  in  other  climes  helps  pupils  to  interpret  better  and  to  appreciate  more  their  own  complex 
lives.  (3)  If  children  live  in  a  community  where  any  of  the  descendants  of  the  foreign  types  live, 
they  can  be  led  to  understand  and  love  these  people,  learning  the  lessons  first  hand  from  them, 
for  a  tactful  teacher  can  get  the  consent  of  different  citizens  of  foreign  birth  to  let  her  take  a  class 
to  their  houses  to  hear  stories  of  distant  lands,  and  to  see  articles  brought  from  abroad. 

5.  Type  industries  of  other  lands  are  learned  in  relation  to  community  in- 

dustries and  community  needs,  but  should  not  be  studied  intensively. 

6.  Transportation  over  land  areas. 

a.  Across  plains,  over  and  through  mountains,  through  passes,  along 

rivers,  across  rivers,  over  deserts,  through  jungles,  etc. 

b.  How   accomplished — animal   helpers   such   as   camels,   llamas,    ele- 

phants, horses,  and  dogs;  railroads,  bridges,  tunnels,  canals,  etc. 

7.  Means  of  communicating  with  distant  peoples. 

Messengers,  carrier-pigeons,  mail,  newspapers,  telegraph,  tele- 
phone, and  so  on. 

C.  Water  expanses  (or  oceans). 

1.  Location  of  each.     2.  Relative  size  and  importance  to  us. 

3.  Plant  and  animal  life  therein,  of  value  to  man. 

4.  Shore  line — meeting  of  land  and  water  masses. 

Bays,  gulfs,  seas,  straits,  harbors,  peninsulas,  islands,  capes,  etc. 
How  formed.     How  made  use  of  by  man. 

5.  Transportation  over  water. 

a.  Difficulties  and  dangers,     b.  Aided  by  currents,  winds,  etc. 

c.  Need  of  ships  of  different  kinds. 

6.  Communication  across  the  oceans;  how  secured. 

Note:  In  all  of  this  study  the  teacher  will  find  representative  work  invaluable  as  a  means 
of  clarifying,  organizing,  and  clinching  children's  ideas.  Construction  work  in  several  media, 
sand-table  work,  pictures  and  descriptions  of  regions,  dramatization  of  improvised  plays  which 
give  the  home-life  of  the  different  peoples,  lantern-slide  entertainments,  stereoscopic  pictures, 
drawing,  painting,  and  chart-making,  are  all  valuable  forms  of  representation.  The  drawing  of 
maps,  as  well  as  the  modeling  of  them  in  clay,  paper  pulp,  flour,  or  cornstarch,  helps  pupils  to  crys- 
tallize their  knowledge  of  forms  and  locations,  and  lays  the  foundation  for  later  map-interpreta- 
tion. The  use  of  colored  crayons  and  water-colors  in  map-work  is  especially  pleasing  to  pupils, 
Of  course  maps  of  distant  regions  should  not  be  drawn  until  pupils  have  learned  what  maps  really 
represent,  through  the  drawing  of  local  maps  (or  plans)  of  the  school-room,  yard,  a  farm  or  indus- 
trial plant  visited,  or  some  village  or  region  actually  traversed.  Because  children  enjoy  globe 
and  map  drills  on  mere  locations,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  do  too  much  of  this.  Plenty  of  oppor- 
tunity for  "place-geography"  arises  in  grade  after  grade,  as  pupils  study  (1)  world  industries  and 
the  usual  accompanying  statistical  maps,  (2)  history,  (3)  current  events,  (4)  literature,  and  (5) 
general  reading.  If  all  these  opportunities  are  utilized,  pupils  will  not,  at  the  end  of  the  course, 
lack  in  locative  knowledge. 

*  "Seven  Little  Sisters,"  and  "Each  and  All." — Andrews. 


Geography. — Grade  IV. — What  to  Expect.  133 

As  said  before,  this  outline  is  merely  a  form  of  organization,  and  should  not 
govern  the  order  of  treatment  of  topics.  Perhaps,  on  a  rainy  fall  day,  the  teacher 
drops  other  plans,  and  discusses  the  causes  of  rain  and  the  fate  of  the  drops — how 
some  moisten  the  soil  and  aid  plant-growth;  how  others  sink  into  the  earth  to 
appear  later  as  springs  or  wells:  how  some  run  off  rapidly  into  creeks  and  rivers, 
eroding  the  soil,  perhaps  carrying  a  bit  of  local  soil  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  and  how 
others  are  more  or  less  quickly  evaporated  to  moisten  the  air  we  breathe  or  to 
form  mist,  fog,  or  clouds.  Such  a  series  of  lessons  will  last  a  number  of  days 
and  will  lead  to  weather  observations  and  recordings  of  temperature,  sunshine, 
clouds,  and  rain;  to  the  noting  of  signs  of  seasonal  changes  as  seen  in  changing 
temperature,  behavior  of  plants  and  animals  (especially  trees  and  birds);  and  to 
observations  of  the  sun's  positions  in  the  heavens. 

What  to  expect  by  the  end  of  the  fourth  grade. — 1.  That  pupils  may- 
have  the  knowledge  indicated  by  the  outline  given  above,  although 
this  knowledge  will  not  be  so  organized  in  their  minds. 

2.  That  they  can  name  and  locate  on  the  map  the  continents 
and  oceans,  and  take  a  map  trip  to  any  of  the  regions  studied,  nam- 
ing the  most  important  countries  passed  en  route,  stopping,  perhaps, 
to  tell  of  their  surface  and  climate,  products  and  people. 

3.  That  they  can  say  how  far  the  home  community  is  able  to 
meet  its  own  needs  and  what  must  be  secured  elsewhere,  with  a 
general  knowledge  of  why  the  home  region  can  or  cannot  meet  all 
the  community's  needs,  and  why  other  localities  are  able  to  supply 
the  lack. 

4.  A  knowledge  of  the  differences  in  living  in  rural  and  urban 
communities,  with  the  larger  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  each. 

Grade  V. 
The  subject-matter  of  the  year  is  North  America,  to  be  first 
studied  as  a  whole,  and  then  by  sections,  with  considerable  emphasis 
on  Minnesota*  when  the  central  section  of  the  United  States  is  under 
study  and  whenever  the  problems  of  other  portions  relate  closely 
to  Minnesota.*  This  course  so  nearly  parallels  those  outlined  under 
industry  and  citizenship  that  constant  cross  relations  are  possible, 
and  since  arithmetic,  literature,  and  composition  work,  may  be 
motivated  by  the  geography,  history,  and  industry  courses,  the 
teacher  should  make  the  entire  work  of  the  grade  one  unit,  letting 
each  course  help  the  others. 

Note:  This  first  work  is  not  given  with  the  primary  intention  of  developing  geographic 
principles,  although  many  facts  here  learned  will,  later,  be  so  used.  See  sixth-grade  work  for  an 
outline  of  continent  study  connected  with  the  development  of  principles.  This  year's  work  is 
meant  to  be  just  generally  informational. 

The  "problem"  or  "project"  method  of  teaching  geography  and 
history  is  just  now  replacing  the  earlier  forms  of  lesson-plans.  The 
advantages  are  numerous  enough  to  make  the  plan  worthy  every 
teacher's  trial,  at  least.  (1)  The  selection  of  a  problem  by  pupils, 
or  to  suit  pupils'  needs  or  interests,  at  once  insures  enthusiastic 
effort.     (2)   Such  effort  tends  towards  practical  efficiency,  since  it 

*For  "Minnesota"  substitute  the  name  of  any  desired  state. 


134  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

is  expended  along  lines  which  adult  life  demands:  search  for  sources, 
judgment  in  the  selection  of  material  found,  checking  the  reliability 
of  information,  and  learning  where  and  how  to  secure  information 
in  solving  a  problem.  (3)  The  working  out  of  a  project  unifies  many 
otherwise  unrelated  yet  valuable  details  and  at  the  same  time  elim- 
inates a  host  of  inconsequential  facts  that  might  seem  just  as  im- 
portant as  those  chosen,  were  they  all  listed  and  abstractly  evalu- 
ated. (4)  This  plan  enables  teacher  and  pupils  to  work  side  by 
side  instead  of  in  different  planes;  the  result  is  greater  sympathy 
with  one  another,  and  a  broader-minded  attitude.* 

A  number  of  teachers  have  already  asked  how  they  can  use  the 
State  Course  and  the  problem  method  of  work  with  the  text-books 
they  must  teach.  This  is  less  difficult  than  it  appears.  As  Dr. 
McMurry  says,f  the  geography  curriculum  should  be  independent 
of  any  particular  text,  and  should  be  broader  and  better  organized 
than  is  the  work  in  any  one  text-book.J  The  main  thing  for  the 
teacher  to  do  is  to  set  (or  get  the  pupils  to  set)  a  good  problem, 
work  enthusiastically  with  the  children  over  its  solution,  and  then 
check  in  the  text  the  amount  of  work  there  covered.  By  frequent 
checking  the  teacher  notes  what  may  be  left  to  do  and  seeks  prob- 
lems whose  solutions  will  cover  the  remaining  facts  to  be  learned. 
New  problems  will  re-use  much  material  once  found  and  thus  ob- 
viate in  large  measure  the  once-thought-necessary  mechanical  drills. 

A  number  of  more  or  less  satisfactory  problems  are  listed,  with 
brief  suggestions  as  to  their  scope;  but,  since  teachers,  pupils,  text- 
books, and  communities,  are  all  factors  in  the  final  selection  of 
specific  problems,  there  has  been  no  attempt  to  exhaust  the  field 
of  work  to  be  covered  in  grade  five. 

I.  North  America  as  a  Whole. 

A.  What  do  we  need  to  know  so  that  we  may  learn  much  about  a  country 

from  just  map  study?  (Answer  reviews  what  is  known  of  map-mak- 
ing and  map-interpreting;  adds  the  need  of  learning  about  latitude 
and  longitude,  the  various  methods  of  indicating  topography  on  a 
flat  map;  the  use  of  surface  and  altitude  scales;  and  opens  the  prob- 
lems of  the  year.) 

B.  How  have  men  learned  to  locate  places  on  the  earth's  surface  accurately? 

(Answered  by  the  study  of  latitude  and  longitude.  See  pages  271- 
276.) 

C.  What  relation  does  the  drainage  of  North  America  bear  to  the  drainage 

of  Minnesota  (or  reverse  the  question)?  (Answer  found  in  a  lesson- 
plan,  page  27N.) 

D.  Be  "land  agents"  in  Canada.     What  inducements  can  you  offer  settlers 

to  make  their  homes  in  your  region?  (An  excellent  review  of  Can- 
ada's physiographical  conditions,  resources,  and  people.) 

E.  Why  does  Canada  not  desire  union  with  the  United  States? 

F.  Does  the  United  States  care  to  annex  Mexico?     Why? 


*  A  helpful  article  by  George  D.  von  Hofe.Jr.,  may  be  found  in  the  May,  1916,  Teachers  Col- 
lege Record,     f  'n  tin-  September,  1015,  Teachers  College  Record. 

X  In  "The  World  as  a  Whole,"  and  "North  America,"  Prof.  Ridgley  has  shown  how  closely 
several  texts  agree  in  both  the  amount  and  selection  of  subject-matter. 


Geography. — Grade  V. — Problems.  135 

II.  The  United  States. 

A.  What  does  it  commonly  mean  to  be  "an  American"?     Why  has  "An 

American"  come  to  mean  "A  citizen  of  the  United  States"?  (An- 
swer leads  to  a  comparison  of  the  United  States  with  other  divisions 
of  North  America,  in  the  matter  of  extent  of  territory,  population, 
latitude  and  longitude,  natural  resources,  industries,  commerce, 
ideals,  rank  among  world  powers,  amount  of  influence,  opportunity, 
and  so  on.  The  solution  should  lead  to  proper  civic  pride,  with  its 
accompanying  obligation  to  make  strangers  welcome  and  happy  here.) 

B.  How  has  the  purchase  of  Alaska  benefited  the  United  States? 

C.  Why  is  the  East  more  thickly  populated  than  the  West?     (Both  a  geo- 

graphical and  a  historical  question.) 

D.  Why  is  the  steel  industry  centered  around  Pittsburgh?     Account  for  the 

recent  westward  movement  of  the  industry.  (Gary  and  Duluth,  for 
example.) 

E.  How  is  the  outlying  territory  of  the  United  States  made  to  feel  itself  a 

part  of  the  home  country? 

F.  Prove  that  it  benefits  the  United  States  government  to  expend  money: 

(1)  On  the  reclamation  of  arid  lands  in  the  western  states  (see  pages 
276-278  for  one  answer).  (2)  On  forest  conservation.  (3)  On  a 
fish  and  game  commission.  (4)  On  keeping  the  Mississippi  river 
dredged. 

G.  What  is  the  government's  duty  to  the  Indians?     (Answer  leads  to  a 

study  of  how  the  natives  of  North  America  adjusted  themselves  to 
their  environment;  how,  when  robbed  of  their  accustomed  means  of 
support,  sometimes  cheated  and  injured,  they  lost  power  and  heart, 
and,  like  little  children,  had  to  be  cared  for  and  taught  new  ways  of 
making  adjustments  to  their  changed  environment.  The  study  gives 
a  background  for  the  appreciation  of  all  primitive  life,  and  an  impetus 
towards  broad  self-training  that  permits  ready  adaptability  to  new 
situations.  The  study  may  be  expanded  to  include  the  specific 
study  of  Minnesota  Indians,  and  their  relation  to  early  pioneer  life 
in  Minnesota,  the  Sioux  massacre,  and  so  on,  but  should  not  be  forced 
beyond  the  abilities  of  the  pupils.  The  problem  leads  to  a  study  of 
United  States  Indian  reservations,  where  located,  what  done  on  them, 
Indian  schools,  cost  to  the  government,  and  so  on.  Is  the  govern- 
ment meeting  its  obligations  satisfactorily  or  not?) 

H.  How  do  we  pay  for  the  necessities  and  luxuries  which  we  import?  (The 
answer  involves  a  study  of  exports  in  relation  to  imports.) 

I.  Why  do  people  "go  West"? 

J.  (1)  What  would  you  see  people  doing  if  you  should  go  by  rail  or  auto 
from  our  home  town  to  Buffalo?  (2)  To  New  Orleans?  (3)  To  San 
Francisco?  Suppose  you  go  by  train  or  boat  and  keep  a  note-book 
during  the  entire  trip;  suppose  you  plan  the  return  trip  so  that  you 
pass  in  daylight  the  places  passed  in  the  night  on  your  outward  jour- 
ney: I  should  like  to  see  or  hear  pages  from  your  note-book,  a  week 
from  today.  (4)  Keep  a  diary  of  what  interests  you  day  by  day  in 
a  week's  visit  on  a  cattle  ranch.  Or  (5)  Keep  notes  on  a  week  spent 
in  the  Twin  Cities  and  vicinity. 

K.  (1)  Let  us  show  on  our  sand-table  how  people  raise  such  fine  fruit  in 
eastern  Washington.  (An  irrigated  farm  constructed.)  (2)  Or,  let 
us  build  a  coal  city,  showing  the  town  above  ground  and  the  miners 
below.  (Demands  much  reference  reading  to  make  the  completed 
table  consistent.)* 

L.  Find  the  cause  of  the  growth  of (Supply  the  name  of  some 

section  of  the  United  States,  of  some  state,  of  some  great  industry 
such  as  iron-ore  mining  in  Minnesota,  of  some  city,  such  as  New 
York,  Chicago,  or  Minneapolis,  or  even  of  some  section  of  the  L,cal 
state  under  study.) 

III.  Minnesota.     (Change  to  fit  any  state  under  study). 

A.  (1)  Why  is  Minnesota  often  called  "The  Bread-Basket  of  the  World"? 
Prove  her  right  to  the  title.  (2)  Why  is  Minnesota  occasionally 
called  "The  Butter  Tub,"  too?     Prove  that  she  may  properly  claim 

*  Such  a  table  was  prepared  with  great  success  by  Miss  Edna  Merriam,  of  Minneapolis. 


136  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

this  name.  (Answer  may  include  surface  and  soil  formation,  glacial 
action,  etc.,  as  well  as  industries.) 

B.  Why  do  people  from  foreign  lands  (especially  European  countries)  seek 

Minnesota?  (Answer  involves:  (1)  A  study  of  immigration,  with  the 
peoples'  sacrifices  made  in  leaving  the  father-land;  the  dangers  met 
in  coming  to  America;  the  difficulties  of  entrance  at  Ellis  Island;  the 
hardships  met  in  Minnesota.  (2)  A  study  of  what  Minnesota  has 
to  offer  persons  possessed  of  certain  characteristics  and  of  certain  am- 
bitions: mining  for  the  Fins,  Russians,  Austrians,  and  Bohemians; 
railroad  labor  for  the  Italians;  various  forms  of  agriculture  and  man- 
ufacturing for  the  Scandinavians  and  Germans;  and  so  on.*  (3)  A 
study  of  what  schools  can  do  and  what  fifth-grade  pupils  can  do  in 
their  own  community  to  help  make  these  people  feel  at  home,  love 
Minnesota,  and  become  loyal  American  citizens. f  (4)  A  recognition 
of  the  worth  of  certain  foreign-born  men  and  women  of  fine  charac- 
ter, ability,  and  loyalty,  sure  to  be  found  in  every  locality.) 

C.  What  effect  have  the  Great  Lakes  upon  Minnesota's  industrial  develop- 

ment?    (Answer  will  include  the  problem  of  water  versus  rail  trans- 
portation.) 
E.  How  do  great  steamers  get  past  the  falls  of  Sault  Saint  Marie?     (Canal 
lock-system  studied.) 

What  to  expect  by  the  end  of  the  fifth  grade. — (1)  That  pupils  will 
have  learned  the  several  ways  of  acquiring  geographical  knowledge, 
namely:  (a)  By  the  observation  of  geographical  phenomena;  "es- 
pecially that  pupils  shall  by  this  time  have  learned  to  tell  true  direc- 
tions by  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars;  to  get  'their  bearings'  and  feel 
them  true,  under  a  fairly  open  sky,  at  any  hour  of  day  or  night. "J 
(b)  By  map  study,  (c)  By  ability  to  gather  knowledge  from  the 
teacher  or  a  speaker  who  gives  direct  oral  instruction,  (d)  By  the 
intelligent  use  of  text-books  and  a  few  reference-books,  (e)  By 
making  sensible  inferences  from  facts  already  known.  § 

(2)  That  pupils  will  know  the  essential  facts  about  North  Amer- 
ca,  the  United  States,  and  their  own  state,  which  will  later  help 
them  in  reasoning  causally  and  in  living  more  richly. 

(3)  That  throughout  the  year,  as  children  solve  problems,  or 
prove  positions  to  others,  rapid  map  sketching  on  blackboard,  or 
occasionally  more  careful  map  drawing  on  paper,  should  be  encour- 
aged. Pupils  should  readily  sketch  North  America,  the  United 
States,  and  characteristic  sections,  locating  a  few  rivers,  mountain 
systems,  large  lakes,  and  important  cities  on  these  maps. 

Grade  VI. 

The  sixth  year  is  to  be  spent  on  the  study  of  South  America  and 
Europe,  the  two  grand  divisions  most  closely  related  to  us. 

During  this  year,  the  observations  made  in  preceding  grades 
without  any  attempt  at  scientific  explanations  are  now    recalled  and 

♦Excellent  reference  material  can  be  secured  from  the  Minnesota  State  Bor.rd  of  Immigra- 
tion, St.  Paul.  Sec  especially  "Minnesota  by  Counties."  Also  secure  from  the  Minnesota  De- 
partment of  Education,   Bulletin  No.  60,  called  "Minnesota   Day." 

t  The  lives  cii'  several  famous  Minnesotans,  Antin's  "The  Promised  Land,"  and  Wilson's 
Speech  to  Immigrants  at  Philadelphia,  (see  p.  62,)  arc  good  sources  for  material. 

\  R.  J.  Scarborough,  Winona  Normal  School. 

§  Taken,  in  substance,  from  the  Wisconsin  Manual  of  1906. 


Geography. — Grade  VI.  — South  America.  137 

used  by  the  children  in  their  formulation  of  the  larger  geographic 
principles  which  they  discover  (and  are  helped  to  organize)  as  they 
seek  the  causes  for  conditions  found  in  the  two  continents  studied. 

South  America  is  called  by  some  geographers  "the  perfect  con- 
tinent" because,  in  formation  of  its  contour,  in  its  surface  feat- 
ures, as  well  as  in  its  plant,  animal,  and  human  responses  to  physi- 
ography, the  great  geographic  principles  are  exemplified  with  few 
or  no  exceptions.  It  should  be  compared  with  North  America  at 
every  step  indicated  in  the  following  outline;  pupils  thus  get  a 
physiographic  knowledge  of  North  America  to  supplement  the 
general  information  gained  in  Grade  V. 

1.  General  shape — proportion  of  the  sides  of  the  triangle.  2. 
Contour — number  and  location  of  coast  indentations.  3.  Latitude 
and  longitude.  4.  Ocean  currents.  5.  Surface — location  and  ex- 
tent of  plains,  plateaus,  and  mountain  systems,  together  with  the 
direction  and  place  of  greatest  altitude  of  the  last.  6.  Drainage — 
location  and  volume  of  the  great  drainage  systems.  7.  Tempera- 
ture belts.  8.  Winds.  9.  Rainfall.  10.  Plant  life.  11.  Animal 
life.  12.  Other  natural  resources.  13.  Human  life.  a.  Previous 
to  about  1500.  b.  Changes  because  of  the  discovery,  exploration, 
and  use  of  the  continent  by  Europeans,  c.  Modern  changes  since 
Europeans  and  Americans  have  made  real  homes  there — especially 
in  the  temperate-belt  countries.* 

It  is  highly  probable  that  not  all  facts  desired  can  be  secured 
through  the  solution  of  "problems,"  but  the  small  residue  left  after 
the  teacher  has  checked  what  have  been  so  conquered  can  be  quickly 
"rounded  up."  The  following  quotation  from  an  article  by  L.  W. 
Mayberryf  gives  some  indication  of  the  relative  efficiency  of  thought 
methods  and  mechanical  methods: 

"In  October,  1914,  the  pupils  of  the  6-A  class  were  studying  South  America. 
The  superintendent  and  one  of  the  sixth-grade  teachers  tried  a  rather  new  plan 
in  teaching  geography  to  one  of  these  sixth  grades. 

"It  was  agreed  that  little  attention  should  be  given  to  mere  fact-questions  as 
such.  The  emphasis  each  day  was  to  be  placed  on  thought-provoking  questions. 
No  more  than  three  such  questions  should  be  assigned  for  study  on  any  day. 
The  pupils  were  given  such  questions  twenty-four  hours  before  they  attempted 
to  discuss  them.  They  were  expected  to  look  up  any  facts  bearing  on  the  ques- 
tions. During  the  recitation  the  pupils  were  encouraged  to  criticize  a  recitation 
by  asking  the  pupil  who  recited  some  question  that  would  show  the  weakness  of 
the  position  that  he  took.  No  pupil  was  permitted  to  supply  the  information 
necessary  for  a  complete  recitation.  Occasionally  a  question  was  laid  aside  for 
further  study. 

"This  kind  of  work  continued  for  about  twelve  weeks.  After  the  continent  of 
South  America  was  completed  by  all  of  the  sixth  grades,  the  superintendent  for- 
mulated a  test  consisting  of  three  fact-questions  and  three  thought  questions,  as 
follows: 


*  See  The  National  Geographic  Magazine,  January,  1916,  "How  the  World  Is  Fed,"  for  a  sug- 
gestion here. 

t  In  The  Elementary  School  Journal,  March,  1916. 


138  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

1.  Name  five  countries  in  South  America. 

2.  What  oceans  touch  South  America? 

3.  In  what  zones  does  South  America  lie? 

4.  What  country  of  South  America  has  been  most  progressive?     What  are  the  reasons  for  its 

progress? 

5.  What  reasons  can  you  give  as  to  why  the  Guianas  do  not  rank  among  the  most  important 

countries  of  South  America? 

6.  Why  is  there  such  a  variety  of  climate  and  products  in  the  tropical  Andean  countries? 

"This  test  was  given  to  the  class  in  which  the  experimental  work  was  done, 
and  to  two  other  sixth  grades.  The  papers  written  were  all  graded  by  a  teacher 
who  knew  nothing  about  the  experiment.  The  standing  of  each  room  is  shown 
in  Figs.  8  and  9  [not  reproduced  here]. 

"Room  III  is  the  room  in  which  the  experimental  work  was  done.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  none  of  the  pupils  in  this  room  received  grades  below  70,  while 
75  per  cent  of  them  received  grades  above  90. 

"We  were  interested  to  learn  whether  the  pupils  in  Room  III,  where  the 
thought-provoking  questions  were  emphasized,  had  neglected  the  facts  on  which 
all  reasoning  must  be  based.  As  each  question  received  a  separate  grade  on  each 
pupil's  paper,  it  was  easy  to  determine  their  success  along  this  line.  Correct 
answers  to  the  first  three  questions  required  that  certain  facts  be  held  in  mind. 
Thepupils  in  Room  III  averaged  96  per  cent  on  these  fact-questions  and  85  per 
cent  on  the  last  three  or  thought-questions.  The  pupils  in  Room  I  averaged  83 
on  the  fact-questions  and  60  on  the  thought-questions.  The  pupils  in  Room  II 
averaged  83  on  the  fact-questions  and  70  on  the  thought-questions. 

"No  one  would  contend  that  such  an  experiment  proves  anything  conclusively. 
Doubtless  all  will  agree  that  these  results  are  food  for  thought.  Pupils  may  by 
one  process  or  another  accumulate  a  large  number  of  facts;  but  if  they  have  not 
learned  how  to  organize  or  use  such  facts,  they  have  gained  little  of  value.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  pupils  learn  to  reason  from  day  to  day,  they  are  compelled  to 
use  facts  in  order  to  draw  logical  conclusions.  Pupils  will  become  interested  in 
geography  when  they  see  things  in  their  proper  relation,  when  the  subject-matter 
is  presented  in  the  form  of  problems  for  solution." 

A  few  suggestive  problems  to  use  with  South  America: 

A.  How  can  you  account  for: 

(1)  Two  rainy  seasons  on  the  broad  plains  north  of  the  Amazon?  (2)  Heavy 
rains  over  all  of  Brazil?  (3)  No  rains  west  of  the  Andes  in  the  same  lati- 
tudes? (4)  Lack  of  forests  in  the  valley  of  the  Orinoco?  (5)  The  desert 
of  Atacama?     (6)  The  presence  of  nitrates  in  Chile? 

B.  (1)   Build  South  America  on  the  sand-table.  If  possible,  use  a  hose  with  a 

very  fine  spray  nozzle  and  very  low  water  pressure  to  illustrate  the  effects 
of  rainfall  on  drainage  systems.  If  a  hose  can't  be  used,  afruit-spray  may 
be  borrowed,  or  a  watering-can  may  be  used.  Later,  lay  blue  strings  for 
rivers  and  place  toothpicks  to  indicate  cities  and  resources. 

(2)  Product  maps  made  in  dozens  of  ways  which  teachers  already  know 
prove  a  good  problem  for  any  intermediate  grade. 

A  large  rectangle  of  cork-matting  or  linoleum,  on  which  a  printed  map 
is  affixed,  or  on  which  an  outline  map  has  been  drawn,  proves  especially 
valuable,  since  pins  and  tacks  can  be  used  without  injury,  thus  permitting 
pupils  to  use  such  a  map  in  class  drill-exercises. 

(3)  Modeling  of  relief  maps  in  clay,  starch,  or  paper  pulp,  or  chalk  modeling 
on  the  blackboard,  may  be  used  as  a  testing  problem. 

(4)  Make  a  floor  or  yard  map  large  enough  to  be  walked  over. 

C.  What  does  South  America  furnish  us:  (1)  To  eat?     (2)  To  wear?     (3)  For  use 

in  or  about  our  homes? 

D.  What  do  we  furnish  South  Americans  in  exchange? 

E.  Take  a  trip  with  a  bag  of  coffee  (or  any  selected  product)  from  its  source  to 

our  home  town.  (1)  What  change  in  clothes  would  be  needed  for  the 
journey?  (2)  What  animals  would  be  seen?  (3)  What  scenery  viewed? 
(4)  What  part  of  the  journey  would  be  most  interesting?  Why?  Most 
tiresome?     Why?     Most  dangerous?     And  so  on. 

Dr.  Charles  McMurry  once  said,  "Well-selected  facts  are  indis- 
pensable to  growth,  but  mere  multiplication  of  facts  creates  stupid- 
ity."    The  "problem"  is  one  of  the  best  means  of  selecting  worth- 


Geography. — Grade  VI. — Europe.  139 

while  facts,  and  of  eliminating  many  poor  facts.  The  problems 
chosen  would,  in  the  main,  lead  to  a  search  for  fundamental  causes 
of  contour,  physiography,  and  general  life  adjustments  to  condi- 
tions, with  especial  emphasis  on  man's  response  to  his  environment. 
However,  in  this  grade  as  well  as  later  the  solution  of  a  superior 
problem  should  be  interrupted  if  some  current,  important,  geo- 
graphic fact  needs  noting,  such  as  a  disastrous  volcanic  eruption 
like  that  at  Messina;  final  results  in  boundaries,  or  in  economic 
conditions  to  occur  at  the  end  of  the  present  "Great  War";  famine; 
floods;  a  new  canal  (such  as  is  suggested  as  possible  from  Duluth 
to  the  Mississippi);  the  actual  attainment  of  the  North  or  of  the 
South  Pole;  a  great  snow  storm  which  seriously  ties  up  traffic; 
or  the  discovery  and  practical  use  of  some  new  food-stuff.  Current 
events  are  as  vital  in  geography  as  in  history. 

Europe. — The  influence  of  European  conditions  upon  every 
phase  of  North  American  life  makes  the  study  of  Europe  both  a 
necessity  and  a  delight,  not  only  to  children,  but  to  adults  as  well. 

How  the  people  of  each  country  live,  support  themselves  on  such 
small  areas,  supply  the  demands  of  other  countries,  conserve  their 
resources;  how  they  dress,  talk,  and  play;  what  sorts  of  homes  they 
have;  the  animal  helpers  they  employ;  their  attitude  towards  edu- 
cation, art,  music,  and  science;  all  are  problems  of  great  interest. 
Discovering  how  all  these  adjustments  grew  out  of  "natural  condi- 
tions" keeps  geographic  principles  to  the  fore.  Why  any  Europe- 
ans leave  (or  left)  their  native  lands  to  make  for  themselves  new 
homes  in  America;  which  nationalities  came  in  greatest  numbers 
during  any  chosen  decade,  and  why;  noting  to  which  parts  of  North 
America  the  different  nationalities  came,  and  why:  these  are  prob- 
lems to  be  studied  both  in  history  and  geography. 

The  influence  of  Europe  on  the  plant  and  animal  life  of  the 
United  States  is  a  very  big  problem  to  face — the  importation  of 
bees;  birds;  fruits;  grain  seeds,  and  with  these  some  weeds;  breeds 
of  sheep,  cows,  and  draught  horses;  of  the  silk-worm;  and  so  on. 
The  influence  of  European  history  on  the  amount  of  wheat,  meat, 
cotton,  and  other  products,  which  we  export;  the  manufacture  of 
firearms,  as  well  as  changes  in  the  manufacture  and  export  of  farm 
and  factory  machinery  for  use  in  Europe:  these  are  topics  from 
which  specific  and  vital  "problems"  can  be  made.  To  find  what 
Americans  can  learn  of  thrift  or  economy,  of  recreation,  of  taste  or 
style  in  dress,  of  science  and  art,  from  each  of  several  European 
countries,  helps  us  to  grow  broad-minded.  The  effect  of  Europe's 
call  for  our  products  upon  the  cost  of  our  living  shows  us  again  and 
clearly  the  interdependence  of  nations. 


140  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Some  interesting  personal  problems  can  be  started  by  getting 
the  pupils  of  one  grade  to  trace  their  ancestry  to  its  European  ori- 
gin; to  summarize  the  results,  noting  the  agencies  which  contribute 
to  true  Americanism,  getting  pupils  to  show  what  fine  traits  of 
character  each  nationality  possesses  and  hence  sent,  in  some  meas- 
ure, in  their  representatives,  to  America;  the  doctrine  of  noblesse 
oblige  should  be  encouraged  to  the  full,  for  each  nation's  descendants 
have  something  of  which  to  be  proud  although  nothing  of  which  to 
"brag."  If  the  school  is  in  a  locality  of  many  foreigners,  old-coun- 
try garments,  dishes,  tools,  pictures,  legends,  may  all  be  collected 
and  the  life  of  those  lands  made  very  real.  This  also  gives  every 
child  a  chance  to  contribute  something  to  the  group.  The  same 
sort  of  effort  may  be  expended  in  tracing  the  children's  industrial 
ancestry,  finding  perhaps  the  cause  of  parents'  present  occupations 
in  "America,  the  land  of  promise." 

The  power  of  true  study,  begun  in  lower  grades,  receives,  besides 
much  practice,  definite  onward  impetus  in  the  sixth  grade,  for, 
through  their  growing  ability  to  pick  out  essentials  and  to  organize 
facts  around  a  core,  sixth-grade  pupils  acquire  a  feeling  of  power 
that  makes  for  renewed  effort. 

The  teacher  should  take  great  pains  to  see  that  home  assign- 
ments are  not  deadening  to  the  aroused  love  of  searching  for  and 
selecting  of  the  most  valuable  facts.  Seldom,  if  ever,  should  the 
assignment  be  mere  written  reproductions  of  information  given  at 
school.  Parents  and  neighbors  may  wisely  be  enlisted  in  the  prob- 
lem-solving; school  and  community  can  be  united.  Supplement- 
ing of  thought  by  reference  reading,  by  the  asking  of  questions,  by 
atlas  study,  and  other  means,  must  be  constantly  encouraged. 

Do  a  large  amount  of  map  sketching,  of  grand  divisions;  of  sec- 
tions (such  as  Italy  and  Scandinavia);  of  certain  parts  of  cities 
(London,  Paris,  or  Rome,  for  example);  or  of  routes  to  be  taken  in 
imaginary  travels  through  some  of  these  lands.  A  relatively  small 
amount  of  accurate  map-drawing  should  be  demanded.  (Bought  or 
hectographed  outline  maps  should  be  used  where  such  maps  are 
needed.) 

What  to  expect  by  the  end  of  the  sixth  grade. — (1)  The  teacher  should 
make  sure  that  pupils  have  a  few  large  geographic  principles  well 
in  mind,  having  obtained  them  by  reasoning  from  effects  to  causes, 
namely:  (a)  The  general  effect  of  the  earth's  shape,  movements, 
inclination  of  axis,  relation  to  the  sun  and  surrounding  atmosphere, 
upon  air  and  ocean  currents,  as  well  as  upon  seasons,  and  upon  loca- 
tion of  temperature  belts,  (b)  The  effect  of  winds  and  altitude  on 
rainfall,     (c)  The  effect  of  rainfall  on  surface  of  the  land,  on  soil 


Geography. — Grade  VII.  141 

erosion  and  deposition,  and  on  the  great  water-highways,  (d)  The 
consequence  of  all  these  influences  at  work,  as  seen  in  plant  and 
animal  life,  including  such  forms  of  disease  as  have  influenced  man's 
selection  or  rejection  of  residence  locations  on  the  earth,  (e)  How 
all  this  environment  has  caused  man  to  develop  intellectually  and 
to  wrest  a  living  from  some  regions  while  from  others  he  could 
secure  the  necessities  of  life  without  effort,  (f)  How  his  needs 
have  caused  the  development  of  industries,  the  interchange  of 
products,  and  hence  of  ideas  and  customs. 

(2)  On  the  fact  side,  pupils  should  know  South  America  and 
Europe  at  least  as  well  as  the  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Elimi- 
nation, in  bulletin  number  51,  suggests.  Other  facts  are  bound  to 
be  known  if  the  problem  method  is  employed. 

Grade  VII. 

The  principles  worked  out  in  sixth  grade  need  now  to  be  tested  by 
application  to  new  and  less  known  areas;  namely,  Asia,  Africa,  and 
Australia.  The  reasoning  should  be  mainly  from  cause  to  effect, 
with  a  growing  feeling  that  personal  inference  must  be  checked 
by  consultation  of  the  best  authorities  to  be  found — not  one  text 
alone,  but  many;  not  one  encyclopaedia,  but  as  many  reference- 
books  as  are  available  in  school,  in  town,  and  in  individual  libraries. 

Although  it  is  assumed  that  pupils  come  to  this  grade  with  cer- 
tain principles  in  mind,  it  is  not  expected  that  they  will  be  profi- 
cient in  the  application  of  them.  There  must,  therefore,  with  each 
new  area  studied,  be  opportunity  to  fix,  for  example,  the  facts  of 
heat,  wind,  and  rainfall,  with  their  causes  and  variations — not  as 
an  isolated  study,  but  with  a  special  application  to  the  portion  of 
the  earth  then  under  consideration. 

Team  work  has  not  yet  become  common,  but  every  child  feels 
the  influence  of  his  group  and  is  desirous  of  contributing  something 
worth  while  to  class  problems.  The  work  of  the  year  must  conse- 
quently result  in  wide  ranging  among  magazines  and  other  periodi- 
cals, books  of  travel,  of  reference,  and  of  information;  the  teacher 
has  to  be  "up  to  date,"  and  should  take  pains  to  see  that  pupils  have 
access  to  the  best-known  sources  of  information  and  suggestion. 

Of  course  every  seventh-grade  pupil  has  a  certain  amount  of 
general  information  about  the  new  regions  to  be  studied,  but  such 
knowledge  is  not  usually  accurate  or  detailed  enough  to  spoil  the 
general  plan  of  (1)  noting  causes,  (2)  inferring  consequences,  (3) 
consulting  authorities  for  verification,  and  (4)  recording  the  facts 
and  verified  inferences  made,  with  the  general  reasons  for  such 
conclusions. 


142  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

After  the  teacher  has  proposed  a  problem  or  two  and  knows 
that  the  pupils  have  their  geographic  principles  fairly  well  in  mind, 
pupils  may  be  given  copies  of  physical  maps  of  the  new  land  area 
to  be  studied, — Africa,  for  example, — with  these  commands  as  a 
challenge:  Find  out  all  you  can  about  Africa  from  this  map.  Make 
written  note  of  the  things  you  find,  if  they  are  more  than  you  think 
you  can  remember  until  recitation  time.  If  the  list  is  long,  group 
the  things  you  discover  under  a  few  large  heads.  Should  the  class 
need  to  have  the  problem  subdivided  the  teacher  may  say:  Find  what 
you  can  about  the  climate  of  Africa  from  a  study  of  the  map  alone. 
Then,  what  can  you  find  out  about  the  products?     And  so  on. 

The  recitation  period  must  be  spent  in  noting  what  the  pupils 
have  been  able  to  gather,  unaided,  from  the  map.  If  they  have 
discovered  most  of  the  facts  necessary  for  later  use,  the  teacher  may 
ask  them  to  suggest  things  about  which  they  would  like  to  find  out 
more;  to  tell  where  they  may  be  able  to  learn  those  things;  and  then 
to  set  a  problem  or  two  for  study  by  the  children.  If  they  have 
not  organized  the  facts  learned  from  the  map,  the  teacher  may 
guide  in  their  doing  this.  If  they  need  to  review  (or  first  learn) 
some  points  about  map  interpretation, — such  as  latitude,  longi- 
tude, scale  of  distances,  scale  of  shadings  or  colors  for  altitude, 
direction  of  winds,  and  so  on, — the  teacher  must  lead  pupils  to  see 
that  this  lack  of  ability  is  a  class  problem  to  be  solved  before  other 
things  can  be  done.  Questions  of  this  nature  will  need  to  be  asked: 
If  you  know  the  latitude  of  the  north  and  south  boundaries  of  a 
country,  what  can  you  infer?  What  influences  may  change  your 
inference?  (Altitude,  winds,  ocean  currents,  for  example.)  So 
far  as  you  can  tell  from  the  map,  are  these  influences  at  work? 
Where  are  the  regions  of  greatest  and  least  rainfall?  How  are  you 
able  to  infer  this?  Where  will  you  expect  the  densest  population? 
Why?  What  will  the  people  probably  do  there  for  a  living?  How 
can  you  predict  that?  After  the  teacher  has  suggested  whatever 
problems  seem  needed,  the  children  may  be  assigned  one  group- 
conclusion  of  large  scope,  or  several  individual  inferences  of  nar- 
rower range,  to  be  verified  for  the  morrow. 

As  the  work  progresses,  constant  comparisons  will  need  to  be 
made  between  new  and  old  facts,  so  that  all  necessary  reviews  of 
principles  as  well  as  of  locations  may  be  kept  up.  Again  relatively 
little  time  should  be  spent  on  the  drawing  of  detailed,  accurate 
maps,  but  a  large  amount  of  rapid  sketching  should  be  encouraged. 
Hectographed  or  printed  outline  maps  should  be  used  for  filling  in 
of  products,  cities,  surface  features,  transportation  routes,  or  any 
details  of  which  visualization  is  desired. 


Geography. — Grade  VII. — What  to  Expect.  143 

In  the  work  on  Asia,  the  three  countries  of  Japan,  China,  and 
India,  should  be  intensively  studied;  first,  because  they  are  typical 
nationalities;  second,  because  they  emphasize,  on  account  of  their 
location  in  different  heat  belts,  the  influence  of  physical  conditions 
upon  the  national  life  of  a  people. 

The  "problems"  may  be  similar  to  those  suggested  for  earlier 
grades  except  that  the  majority  of  them  should  demand  thinking 
from  cause  to  effect.     Only  a  few  are  appended: 

A.  What  rank  among  great  nations  would  you  expect  [Japan]  to  have  in  manu- 

facturing?    In  Agriculture?     In  Commerce?     In  Education? 

B.  How  could  [Russia]  make  better  use  of  her  natural  resources  for  national  de- 

velopment? 

C.  What  nation's  ships  will  predominate  in  [India's]  harbors?     Why? 

D.  What  industrial  changes  may  we  expect  in  [China]  in  the  next  decade?     Why? 

E.  What  do  you  predict  for  the  future  of  Australia?     Why? 

F.  What  possibility  is  there  of  the  South  African  natives  becoming  a    leading 

people? 

G.  Why  is  the  Atlantic  the  great  ocean  thoroughfare? 

H.  Why  has  China  been  called  backward  when  she  possesses  such  ancient  cul- 
ture? 

I.  What  makes  a  difference  in  races?  What  has  each  to  give  the  world  of  valu- 
able human  characteristics?    Why  cannot  one  "look  down  upon"  another? 

J.  Why  has  Africa  been  called  "the  dark  continent"? 

K.  Prove  that  grazing  is  the  best  industry  that  could  be  proposed  for . 

L.  How  can  a  nation  subsist  so  largely  on  rice  as  do ? 

M.  What  characteristics  of  temperament  develop  from  oriental  rug-weaving? 
Living  near  the  Taj  Mahal?  Living  on  the  desert  of  Sahara?  Hunting 
ivory  in  central  Africa?     Fishing  for  pearls  off  the  coast  of  India?     Etc. 

N.  Study  the  deserts  found  between  23  degrees  and  30  degrees  north  latitude 
and  those  found  between  the  same  degrees  of  south  latitude  as  to  number, 
location,  area,  causes. 

O.  The  following  problem  demands  thinking  both  from  cause  to  effect  and  from 
effect  to  cause.  Take  a  trip  around  the  world  on  the  fortieth  parallel  of 
north  latitude,  noting,  in  relation  to  it:  (1)  The  dense-population  areas 
of  the  world;  (2)  the  race  types  predominating  in  these  populated  areas; 
(3)  the  large  cities;  (4)  the  main  sorts  of  industries  seen;  (5)  the  trade 
routes  crossed;  (6)  the  superior  plant  crops,  or  (7)  mineral  deposits;  (8) 
variations  in  climate  with  causes  for  the  same;  (9)  changes  in  time  with 
changes  in  longitude,  including  "the  international  date  line";  (10)  vehicles 
of  transportation  employed  throughout  the  journey;  (11)  storms  met  on 
the  journey  if  made  in  September,  in  January,  or  in  June;  (12)  foods  eaten, 
and  their  preparation,  with  their  relative  food-values,  throughout  the  trip. 
(Individual  pupils  or  groups  of  three  or  four  may  "work  up"  solutions  to 

some  of  these  subdivisions  of  the  problem,  if  the  class  as  a  whole  cannot  do  all 

of  them.) 

What  to  expect  by  the  end  of  the  seventh  grade. — (1)  That  pupils  will 
have  acquired  the  simple  facts  of  physical  geography  (see  pp.  127, 
131,  137,  140)  necessary  to  enable  them  to  reason  from  cause  to 
consequence  along  geographic  lines,  and  from  consequence  back  to 
cause.  (2)  That  pupils  will  have  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  world  as 
a  whole,  with  such  appreciation  of  other  nations'  service  to  the 
world  as  to  kill  forever  a  provincialism  which  makes  the  "Chinese 
(or  any  other  people)  so  funny."  (We  are  just  as  "funny.")  (3) 
Such  locative  geography  as  the  "problems"  have  motivated. 


144  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Grade  VIII. 

Note:  This  Course  of  Study  plans  for  at  least  two-fifths  or  one-half  of  a  year's  work  in  com- 
mercial geography  for  the  eighth  grade.  Instead  of  employing  consecutive  daily  recitation  periods 
for  a  few  months  it  is  suggested  that  throughout  the  year  two  days  of  each  week  be  given  to  geog- 
raphy, two  to  history,  and  one  to  arithmetic,  each  helping  the  other,  since  all  will  be  unified  by 
the  common  idea  of  the  interrelationship  of  men  through  commerce.  The  work  outlined  may 
easily  be  expanded  into  a  full  year's  work  in  schools  where  the  time  can  be  accorded  it. 

In  common  with  the  writers  of  many  excellent  text-  and  method- 
books  on  geography,  teachers  are  beginning  to  feel  the  need  of 
again  extending  geography  into  the  eighth  grade,  from  which  it 
was,  in  many  schools,  displaced  a  few  years  ago  when  the  subject- 
matter  was  mainly  locative  geography,  and  the  methods  mainly 
memoriter.  The  reasoning  demanded  by  present-day  subject- 
matter  and  methods  needs  maturer  minds,  and  hence  geography 
again  finds  a  place  in  eighth  grade  and  high  school. 

The  work  of  the  grade  will  naturally  emphasize  the  United 
States  and  home  state,  since  comparisons,  constantly  made  with 
their  conditions,  lay  a  desirable  basis  for  loyalty  and  patriotism 
and  assist  children  to  plan  their  own  future  as  they  recognise  phases 
of  the  world's  work  yet  to  be  done — done  by  those  who  love  the 
land  and  fully  recognize  its  industrial,  economic,  and  social  outlook. 

If  the  work  outlined  for  the  preceding  grades  has  been  well  done, 
pupils  have  a  good  foundation  for  the  proposed  new  view  of  the  field. 

Of  necessity,  the  study  of  the  elementary  principles  of  trade 
and  commerce  demands,  and  hence  happily  reviews,  the  pupils' 
general  knowledge  of:  (1)  All  important  points  commonly  placed 
in  locative  or  political  geography;  (2)  all  principles  learned  about 
topography,  temperature,  winds,  rainfall,  tides,  ocean  currents, 
and  planetary  relations — such  facts  as  were  named  under  physiog- 
raphy; (3)  the  world's  demands,  and  the  distribution  of  areas  pro- 
ducing the  articles  to  satisfy  these  demands — that  is,  industrial 
geography. 

The  method  of  approach  should  be  so  different  from  methods 
before  used  as  to  make  the  subject  (1)  not  only  seem,  but  really  be, 
new;  (2)  develop  judgment  of  worths  as  use  is  made  of  facts  need- 
ing to  be  clinched;  (3)  demand  independence  in  study  and  thought; 
(4)  produce  a  broader  culture;  and  (5)  open  the  pupils'  eyes  to 
opportunities  for  worth-while  work  in  their  coming  adulthood.  Sev- 
eral excellent  books  are  available  for  use  as  texts,  but  the  general 
plan  of  setting  problems  whose  solution  will  demand  the  use  of 
many  books,  as  well  as  magazine-articles,  original  investigation, 
and  thinking,  is  by  all  means  the  best.  For  reasons  given  above, 
the  problems  should  oftenest  lead  to  the  consideration  of  home  con- 
ditions: Why  the  United  States  leads  in  some  industries  and  is  be- 
hind in  others;  whether,  for  example,  there  is  any  section  of  the 


Geography. — Grade  VIII.  145 

United  States  capable  of  raising  tea — a  product  confined  to  such  a 
small  area  as  to  cause  anxiety  if  that  area  were  destroyed  by  earth- 
quake or  other  natural  forces. 

Since  the  unifying  thought  of  the  eighth  grade  is  vocational 
guidance,  the  geography  studied  should  contribute  its  quota  to  the 
general  scheme.     This  it  can  do  if  the  teacher  helps  pupils  to  see: 

(1)  What  men  have  done  to  utilize  their  environment;  against 
what  odds  they  have  often  had  to  work;  how  this  strife  has  pro- 
duced intelligence;  how  a  too-easy  life  engenders  indolence  and 
stagnation  and  hence  how  one  should  not  seek  the  easy  job  with 
short  hours  and  big  pay,  nor  the  "white-collar  jobs"  in  preference 
to  the  "overall  jobs";  how  spurs  must  be  earned  if  the  knight 
would  take  real  pride  in  them.  In  connection  with  history,' indus- 
try, vocational  guidance,  ethics,  and  composition,  children  should 
study  the  lives  of  men  and  women  who  have  succeeded  in  various 
lines — in  invention,  in  medical  service,  in  private  life,  for  example 
— so  that  there  may  be  exploded  all  notion  that  big  returns  come  by 
luck  rather  than  by  hard  work. 

(2)  How,  with  this  control  of  nature,  has  come  an  ever-increasing 
dependence  of  men  on  one  another,  and  hence  how  the  highest  form 
of  cooperation — division  of  labor — has  arisen,  until  the  best  locations 
have  been  found  for  certain  industries.  Pupils  must  be  helped  to 
appreciate  the  accomplishments  of  others  and  hence  the  necessity  of 
their  being  "both  able  and  willing"  to  further  the  world's  work. 

(3)  How  this  specialization  of  labor  has  necessitated  exchange  of 
products;  an  increasing  need  of  knowing  the  laws  of  supply  and 
demand,  and  of  producing  goods  that  build  up  the  producer's  repu- 
tation. 

(4)  What  the  industrial  outlook  is  for  the  coming  generation. 

(5)  How  the  exchange  has  widened  from  barter  between  indi- 
viduals, to  commerce  in  its  most  complex  modern  form  with  its 
need  of  men  of  broad  vision,  fine  philanthropy,  and  great  executive 
ability,  to  govern  the  great  transportation  systems,  to  utilize  the 
changes  in  the  world  markets  by  being  prepared  to  supply  the  new 
demands  almost  as  soon  as  they  appear,  or  to  manage  enormous 
banking  and  insurance  undertakings. 

Minnesotaf  will  naturally  be  prominent  in  the  last  few  months  of 
the  eighth  year  in  connection  with  Minnesota  history.  Efforts  to 
predict  the  future  of  Minnesota  and  of  her  separate  sections  or 
cities,  with  the  consequent  adjustments  to  be  demanded  of  the 
next  generation,  must  make  for  true  patriotism.* 

*  United  States  Agricultural  graphs;  daily,  weekly,  and  monthly,  current  periodicals  which 
give  such  articles  as  those  about  "Men  Who  Earn  $100,000  Salaries,"  or  "How  the  World  Is  Fed," 
or  "The  Brotherhood  of  Bread,"  should  be  read.     -[Substitute  any  desired  state. 


146  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

What  to  expect  of  pupils  by  the  end  of  the  eighth  grade. — "Given 
an  unlettered  map  of  the  United  States,  on  which  the  states  are 
outlined,  our  grammar-school  graduate  ought  to  be  able  to  write 
the  names  of  the  states  in  their  proper  places.  He  ought  to  be 
able  to  do  as  much  for  the  important  divisions  of  South  America, 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 

"He  should  know  the  approximate  location  of  the  eight  or  ten 
best-known  rivers  of  the  Mississippi  system;  three  or  four  of  the 
Pacific  rivers,  and  two  or  three  of  Canada;  the  three  great  river 
systems  of  South  America,  four  or  five  of  Africa,  a  half-dozen  of 
Asia,  two  or  three  of  the  British  Isles,  of  France,  of  Germany,  and 
of  Russia;  also  the  Po  and  Danube.  He  should,  of  course,  know 
the  rivers  of  the  region  in  which  he  lives. 

"He  should  know  the  location  of  such  arms  of  the  ocean  as  are 
highways  of  the  world's  great  commercial  movements. 

"He  should  know  the  location  of  those  islands  and  groups  of 
islands  that  are  real  factors  in  the  world's  activities,  or  have  a  great 
historical  interest. 

"He  should  know  the  facts  of  position,  direction  of  trend,  etc., 
of  the  half-dozen  most  important  mountain  systems  or  mountain 
groups  of  North  America;  the  Andes,  Apennines,  Pyrenees,  Cau- 
casus, Ural,  Himalaya,  and  Altai;  the  location  of  a  few  of  the  most 
frequently  mentioned  peaks,  such  as  Mt.  Blanc  and  Mt.  Everest. 

"There  are  a  few  capes  that  are  often  mentioned,  such  as  Horn 
and  Good  Hope,  and  their  location  is  worth  knowing. 

"He  ought  to  know  something  of  the  location  of  the  chief  colo- 
nies of  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany,  Holland,  and  the  United 
States. 

"He  ought  to  know  something  of  the  location  of  some  twenty- 
five  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  United  States,  what  those  cities  stand 
for  in  our  industrial  and  commercial  life,  and  the  advantages  of 
their  situation.  There  are  twenty  or  thirty  foreign  cities  whose 
location  should  be  definitely  known,  and  also  something  of  what 
these  cities  stand  for.  In  addition  to  these  there  are  fifty  or  more 
other  cities  at  home  and  abroad  whose  names  ought  to  be  familiar 
to  the  pupil.  It  is  sufficient  to  know  in  what  state  or  nation  these 
are  located."* 

Pupils  should  know  where  to  find  information  of  a  required  kind; 
should  be  well  acquainted  with  at  least  one  newspaper,  one  maga- 
zine, and  two  geographies;  and  should  be  able  to  solve  thought 
problems  similar  to  the  following: 

*  R.  H.  Whit  beck:  Journal  of  Geography,  Vol.  4,  1905,  pp.  149-154,  quoted  by  George  J. 
Miller,  Journal  of  Geography,  January,  1915. 


Geography. — Grade  VIII. — Suggested  Problems.   147 

SUGGESTED  PROBLEMS. 

Note:  The  problems  may  be  of  larger  scope  than  those  used  in  lower  grades,  but  should,  in 
each  case,  be  narrow  enough  to  suit  the  pupils'  abilities,  the  time  to  be  devoted  to  the  subject, 
and  the  available  sources  for  solution  of  the  problems.  Those  suggested  are  not  mutually  exclu- 
sive, nor  do  they  cover  the  entire  field;  the  questions  as  well  as  the  implied  organizations  of  answers 
are  merely  illustrative  and  not  meant  to  be  followed  as  given. 

A.  In  what  ways  has  man  caused  the  entire  world  to  contribute  to  his  needs? 

[May  be  expanded  into  three  large  problems,  each  of  which  may  again  be 
expanded:  (1)  Man's  needs  (physical,  social,  spiritual).  (2)  Sources  of 
supply  and  production  of  materials  to  meet  these  needs  (natural;  changed 
by  man's  inventions).  (3)  Distribution  and  exchange  of  these  products 
(industrial,  and  art  centers;  transportation  routes — land  routes,  inland 
water-ways,  ocean  transportation).]* 

B.  What  place  in  the  development  of  North  America  do  steam  and  electricity 

take?  (Or,  narrowed,  Show  the  value  of  railroads  to  the  development  of 
the  United  States.     Or,  to  Minnesota.) 

C.  Show  how  the  Appalachian  highlands  have  affected  trade. 

D.  What  has  been  the  value  of  water  to  man  in  his  progress?     (The  body's  need, 

the  soil's  need,  and  trade's  need  of  water.) 

E.  What  influences  operated  in  the  economic  development  of ?    (Any  area 

desired.) 

F.  Account  for  the  growth  of  the  "Twin  Cities."     Predict  their  future.     (Or, 

Duluth,  or  other  Minnesota  cities.) 

G.  How  does  Minnesota  rank  among  all  of  the  states  in  the  United  States?     (So- 

lution should  lead  to  comparisons  of  Minnesota  with  other  states  in  size, 
population,  wealth,  educational  ideals,  industrial  progress,  social  service, 
and  a  final  judgment  on  whether  she  is  living  up  to  her  ability.) 

H.  The  value  to  commerce  of  the  invention  of  the  mariner's  compass.  (Mag- 
netism and  gravity  reviewed.) 

I.  The  value  to  commerce  of  the  facts  of  the  earth's  shape  and  rotation.  (Com- 
pare the  circulation  of  air  on  a  stationary  earth  with  the  wind  movements 
on  a  rotating  earth.) 

J.  What  effect  on  commerce  does  or  will  the  Panama  Canal  have?  The  pro- 
posed canal  from  Duluth  to  the  Mississippi? 

K.  What  has  caused  New  York  (or,  any  large  city  desired,  with  consistent  ques- 
tions) to  outstrip  other  Atlantic  seaports  as  a  commercial  center? 

L.  What  is  expected  as  a  result  of  China's  "Open  Door"? 

M.  How  has  the  crusade  against  disease  and  in  favor  of  city  sanitation  affected 
industry  and  commerce?  (May  be  subdivided  into  the  problems  met  in 
special  localities — Cuba,  or  the  Panama  Canal  zone,  or  large  cities'  sew- 
erage problems,  for  example.) 

N.  What  strides  have  been  made  in  national  economy  during  the  last  decade? 
(Illustrations:  By-products  from  various  manufactories  used  how;  scien- 
tists' efforts  to  neutralize  the  bitterness  of  horse-chestnuts  so  they  can 
be  used  as  a  food;  reburning  smoke;  cottonseed-oil  as  a  substitute  for 
olive-oil;  banana  versus  wheat  flour.) 

O.  Effect  of  "The  Great  War"  on  present  and  on  future  industry  and  commerce. 

P.  Comparison  of  the  cost  of  living  in  this  decade  with  cost  in  other  decades. 

Q.  Why  do  the  great  railroads  of  North  America  have  their  main  lines  running 
east  and  west? 

R.  Ten  wheat  problems  of  interest:  (1)  Value  and  use  of  wheat  as  a  grain  food. 
(2)  Wheat  farming  in  the  Red  River  Valley  or  in  Argentina.  (3)  Effect 
of  these  big  farms  on  England's  wheat  culture;  on  manufacturing.  (4) 
Other  wheat  areas  of  the  world  compared  with  these.  (5)  Varieties  of 
wheat,  its  power  of  adaptation,  history  of  its  use  in  past  centuries.  (6) 
Dates  of  wheat  harvest  throughout  the  world,  with  causes.  (7)  Com- 
parison of  statistics  about  yield  per  acre,  value  per  bushel,  and  so  on,  in  a 
different  countries  or  in  different  decades  in  our  own  land;  causes;  effect 
on  commerce.  (8)  Transportation  of  raw  wheat  and  of  wheat  products 
— where,  when,  how,  cost,  etc.  (9)  Cities  thato  we  their  preeminence  to 
wheat— as  distributing  centers,  manufacturing  centers,  and  so  on.  (10) 
Machinery  and  processes  employed  in  manufacturing  wheat  products. 

*  An  excellent  expansion  of  these  topics  appears  in  the  Fourth  Year-Book  (1909)  of  the  Su- 
perintendents' and  Principals'  Association  of  Northern  Illinois. 


148  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

S.  Note  that  in  recent  years  the  United  States  has  sent  several  prominent  citi- 
zens (Root,  Roosevelt,  Bryan,  and  others)  to  South  America  for  the  sake 
of  establishing  friendly  relations  between  the  regions.  Why  does  the 
United  States  care  for  the  friendship  of  South  American  countries?  Why 
is  manufacturing  still  relatively  small  in  the  South  American  countries?* 

B.— NATURE-STUDY. 

In  common  with  all  science,  nature-study  grew  out  of  man's  ad- 
justment to  his  material  world,  and  hence  may  use,  as  school  sub- 
ject-matter, whatever  belongs  to  the  natural  environment  of  chil- 
dren in  any  given  locality.  Since  modern  transportation  brings  to 
the  doors  of  our  school  boys  and  girls  fruits,  furs,  minerals,  and 
manufactured  objects  from  every  land,  a  nature-study  teacher  may 
legitimately  claim  the  right  to  teach  as  environmental  material  not 
only  Minnesota  birds,  trees,  or  weather,  but  also  tropical  fruits, 
nuts,  and  grains;  the  formation  of  diamonds,  pearls,  and  amber; 
and  the  laws  of  physics  according  to  which  some  odd,  even  if  for- 
eign-made, toy  operates. 

Since  many  of  the  same  topics  are  open  to  treatment  under  the 
caption  of  geography  or  of  industry,  even  though  from  a  different 
point  of  view,  the  work  in  nature-study  may  either  supplement  or 
complement  the  work  of  other  courses,  depending  upon  the  amount 
of  time  the  teacher  has  at  his  disposal  for  all  subject-matter.  (See 
page  215.) 

Nature-study  may,  first,  open  the  eyes  of  the  student  to  the 
beauties  of  the  world:  to  the  marvelous  color  combinations  to  be 
seen  in  grass,  flowers,  trees,  clouds  at  sunset;  in  crystal  lakes,  or 
on  snow-capped  mountains;  to  the  graceful  shapes  of  all  these  ob- 
jects as  well  as  of  curving  paths,  winding  brooks,  and  jagged  cliffs; 
and  to  the  mysterious  and  wonderful  adaptation  of  structure  to 
function  in  either  plant  or  animal  life.  If  no  more  than  this  were 
done,  nature-study  could  be  justified  as  a  worthy  school  subject — 
as  one  which  aids  man  to  higher  development;  but  more  than  this 
is  done. 

The  child  acquires  definite  information,  of  specific  value  to  him 
in  a  social  way,  in  his  reading,  and  later  in  his  interpretation  of  life 
situations.  He  may  learn  a  lesson  of  patience  from  every  mother 
bird  he  watches  as  she  warms  the  eggs  within  her  nest;  a  lesson  of 
industry  from  the  same  bird's  feeding  of  her  young;  of  cleanliness, 
from  the  way  Nature  sweeps  her  hillsides  by  the  winds  of  spring; 
of  beauty  as  he  notes  that  every  blot  on  the  landscape  is  soon  cov- 
ered with  a  wealth  of  green;  and,  best  of  all,  he  learns,  perhaps,  to 
believe  in  Life  Eternal  as  he  sees  the  apparently  dead  seed,  bulb, 
or  cocoon,  burst  into  fresh  life.     With  Whittier,  one  wants  to  say — 

*  This  last  problem  is  adapted  from  the  Ohio  Elementary  Course  of  Study. 


Nature-Study. — Subject- Matter.  149 

Alas  for  him     *     *     *     * 

Who  hath  not  learned,  in  hours  of  faith, 
The  truth  to  flesh  and  sense  unknown, 

That  Life  is  ever  lord  of  Death, 
And  Love  can  never  lose  its  own! 

Thirdly,  nature-study  may,  especially  in  intermediate  and  upper 
grades,  be  so  taught  as  to  give  children  a  permanent  control  of  the 
scientific  method  of  attacking  problems  and  of  observing  life;  that 
is,  with  unbiased  mind  seeking  the  truth  for  truth's  sake.  From 
such  study  the  highest  principles  of  ethics  can  be  acquired.  Again, 
in  the  children's  study  of  how  plants  and  animals  aid  or  destroy 
one  another — the  cause  of  and  the  extermination  of  weeds,  of 
"smut,"  of  "chinch-bugs,"  etc. — the  reasons  for  gasoline-stove  ex- 
plosions; for  building  a  fire  in  the  best  way;  as  well  as  in  the  study 
of  a  hundred  other  things,  the  tendency  to  observe  and  to  look  be- 
hind effects  and  to  infer  reasonable  causes,  builds  up  a  sounder  cit- 
izenship than  could  be  built  without  this  study. 

On  page  125  an  attempt  was  made  to  draw  some  distinction  be- 
tween science  and  industry  merely  that  the  student  of  either  could 
keep  his  bearings.  For  the  same  reason  it  may  be  well  for  the 
teacher  to  realize  that  while  geography  emphasizes  the  utilization 
of  the  material  world,  nature-study  lays  stress  upon  what  may  be 
learned  from  man's  environment. 

The  original  plan  regarding  this  Course  of  Study  was  to  make 
detailed  suggestions  for  each  grade  in  school;  but  when  it  was  found 
that  at  least  half  the  pages  allotted  to  the  whole  Course  would  still 
be  inadequate  to  give  teachers  all  that  they  would  wish  along  the 
lines  of  aims;  of  principles  of  selection  of  subject-matter,  of  methods 
of  teaching  different  topics,  and  of  sources  of  supply  for  their  own 
equipment,  the  plan  was  altered.  Many  men  have,  each,  devoted 
a  score  or  more  of  years  to  the  solution  of  just  these  problems,  and 
have  embodied  the  results  of  their  labors  in  so  many  excellent 
texts  on  nature-study  that  every  school  library  must  already  be 
supplied  with  at  least  one  such  book.*  Besides  many  excellent 
texts,  school  journals  contain  much  valuable  material.  Above  all, 
Minnesota's  teachers  are  fortunate  enough  to  have  a  nature-study 
authority  among  their  number,  Mr.  Gilbert  H.  Trafton,  of  Man- 
kato,  a  man  who,  with  Miss  Reynolds's  assistance,  has  prepared  a 
course  in  nature-study  for  every  sort  of  school  in  Minnesota.! 

From  whatever  course  the  teacher  selects  material,  certain 
topics,  such  as  trees,  spring  flowers,  birds,  water  as  affected  by 

*  See  Minnesota  School  Library  List,  pp.  1S-25,  and,  besides  the  older  books,  such  as  those 
by  Jackman,  Hodge,  and  Bailey,  see  "Practical  Nature-Study  and  Elementary  Agriculture,"  by 
Coulter  and  Patterson. 

f  Own  Trafton's  "Outlines  of  Nature-Study,"  published  by  the  Comstock  Publishing  Co., 
Ithaca,  New  York;  cost  about  30  cents. 


150  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

temperature,  gravity,  laws  of  levers,  etc.,  must  be  spirally  treated, 
(1)  because  the  seasonal  recurrence  of  some  phenomena  in  nature 
causes  recurrence  of  interest;  (2)  because  old  knowledge  may  thus 
be  tested  by  use  under  slightly  different  conditions,  and  clarified, 
broadened,  and  clinched;  and  (3)  because  some  pupils  will  not  have 
been  in  a  receptive  mood  when  the  topic  was  first  given  but  will 
be  psychologically  ready  for  it  at  a  second  or  third  treatment. 

Other  topics  have  been  found  at  all  times  to  interest  the  majority 
of  pupils  of  given  ages  and  may  therefore  well  be  arranged  for  use 
in  definite  grades. 

Illustrations — {not  intended  as  an  outline  of  subject-matter). — First-grade  pupils 
are  eager  to  watch  things  move  or  act — hence  they  like  to  study  birds,  chickens, 
rabbits,  cats,  dogs,  etc.;  watch  a  rapidly  growing  plant,  or  note  the  effect  of  the 
wind  on  smoke,  on  weather-vanes,  etc. 

Second-grade  pupils  add  to  this  general  interest  in  action  a  personal  attitude 
and  so  want  their  own  pets,  flowers,  discoveries,  etc.,  discussed.  Individual 
gardens  are  here  a  joy. 

Third-grade  pupils  add  imagination  to  the  above,  and  enjoy  personification  of 
objects  in  nature,  loving  best  those  which  can  be  played  with  or  which  have 
stories — pansy  faces,  sweet-pea  bonnets,  or  Greek,  Norse,  and  Indian  interpre- 
tations of  nature. 

Fourth-grade  children  become  somewhat  more  literal-minded  and  want  facts, 
enjoy  noting  general  relationships,  as,  for  example,  that  gourds,  canteloupes, 
pumpkins,  watermelons,  etc.,  belong  to  one  family;  that  clouds,  rain,  snow,  hail, 
frost,  dew,  and  condensed  water  on  the  outside  of  a  cold  pitcher,  are  related;  or 
that  the  domestic  cat  is  worth  studying  as  a  representative  of  a  large  family  of 
animals  possessed  of  similar  characteristics. 

Fifth-grade  children  crave  physical  activity  and  revel  in  "hikes,"  excursions, 
explorations  of  caves,  ravines,  etc.,  and,  during  the  winter  months,  thoroughly 
enjoy  experimentation  with  simple  physical  apparatus,  ending  in  the  making  of 
some  toys  based  on  principles  of  physics.  Magnetism,  cohesion,  adhesion,  and 
gravity,  are  some  much-liked  topics. 

Sixth-grade  pupils,  beginning  to  organize  their  knowledge,  even  if  crudely, 
like  note-book  work  along  several  lines  such  as  tracing  certain  manufactured 
articles  from  their  source  to  their  final  use — tacks,  different  kinds  of  cloth,  a 
breakfast-food,  etc.  Excursions  and  experimentations  are  still  coveted  and  can 
be  utilized  in  connection  with  the  note-book  work.  Pupils  of  this  age  are  also 
ready  for  some  elementary  science  of  a  sort  that  creates  wonder  and  admiration 
of  nature's  ways,  such,  for  example,  as  a  study  of  the  parts  of  a  flower,  or  of 
experiments  in  plant  growth;  of  bees  and  their  wonderful  systematization  of 
labor;  and  of  laws  of  physics. 

Seventh-grade  children  have  been  found  to  delight  in  the  evolution  of  forms 
in  nature — the  dramatic  background  of  present  life — the  adaptation  of  plants 
and  animals  to  their  environment,  such  as  the  gradual  changes  in  the  horse;  in 
the  cactus;  how  plants  equip  their  seed-children  to  find  new  homes;  the  develop- 
ment of  certain  foods  (oranges,  tomatoes,  apples)  from  the  original  species;  etc. 

Eighth-grade  pupils,  many  of  whom  will  soon  leave  school,  take  an  interest 
in  such  things  as  will  keep  them  alert  to  life  about  them  after  leaving  school — in 
their  vocations  as  bread-winners  or  as  home-keepers.     Hygiene  and  sanitation, 


Physical  Education.  151 

as  related  to  the  care  of  their  own  persona,  rooms,  food  supply,  protection  from 
disease,  labor  conditions;  laws  of  health  and  recreation;  home  gardening;  use  of 
the  thermometer;  heating,  ventilating,  lighting  the  home;  laws  of  nature  affect- 
ing various  industries  such  as  farming,  manufacturing,  commerce,  etc. 

Since,  as  has  often  been  said  before,  the  elementary  school  is 
not  the  place  for  the  teaching  of  any  subject  as  a  science,  nature- 
study  must  not  be  so  taught.  Nevertheless,  such  facts  as  are 
taught  should  be  scientifically  accurate,  not  needing  to  be  un-learned 
later.  For  example,  if  third-grade  pupils  are  making  booklets  con- 
taining pictures  and  descriptions  of  the  "Plants  We  Use  for  Food," 
and  have  such  chapter  headings  as  "Roots  that  We  Eat,"  "Stems 
that  Make  Good  Food,"  "Edible  Seeds,"  etc.,  they  should  not  be 
permitted  to  classify  potatoes  under  roots  when  it  is  just  as  easy  to 
teach  why  the  potato  is  a  stem  in  third  grade  as  it  is  in  high  school. 

From  the  fourth  grade  up,  the  nature-study  work  may  gradually 
approach  real  science,  becoming  what  many  call  "elementary  sci- 
ence," particularly  since  elementary  work  in  physics  and  chemistry 
prepares  both  girls  and  boys  very  directly  for  better  home-making.* 

C— PHYSICAL  EDUCATION.! 

Like  the  two  preceding  divisions  of  Science,  physical  education 
is  closely  related  to  industry,  to  vocational  guidance,  to  civics,  and 
to  ethics,  all  of  which  courses  should  be  read  in  connection  with 
this  one.  To  illustrate:  the  "safety-first"  precautions  necessary 
for  all  to  learn,  may,  like  sanitation  in  regard  to  food,  be  taught  in 
this  course,  or  in  connection  with  industrial  work;  taught  with  civ- 
ics in  community  effort  for  better  protection  of  all;  or  in  connection 
with  the  course  in  right  living. 

Like  every  other  subject  in  the  Course  of  Study,  physical  educa- 
tion has  at  least  one  characteristic  which  differentiates  it  from  all 
related  courses,  so  that  a  topic  studied  under  this  head  has  either 
a  definite  line  of  approach  or  a  distinct  method  of  treatment.  The 
single  word  which  seems  to  characterize  physical  education  is 
"prevention,"  since  all  phases  of  the  subject — physiology,  hygiene, 
sanitation,  gymnastic  exercises,  play,  and  safety  first,  are  bent  on 
the  problem  of  how  to  prevent  the  material  world  (in  the  form  of 
force,  or  disease,  or  ugliness)  from  defeating  man  in  his  attempts 
to  adjust  himself,  for  his  own  and  his  group's  good,  to  his  environ- 
ment. 

Man  has  learned  that  to  prevent  his  being  defeated  by  his  mate- 
rial world,  he  must,  at  different  times,  exercise  physical  force,  in- 

*  Gifford's  text,  referred  to  in  the  Minnesota  School  Library  List,  has  proved  very  valuable 
for  use  by  teachers  of  these  grades. 

t  For  excellent  references  on  this  subject  see  pp.  36  and  91  of  the  Minnesota  School  Library 
List,  and  p.  301  of  this  Manual.  The  best  list  to  purchase  is  "Sources  of  Information  on  Play  and 
Recreation,"  Bulletin  No.  13C,  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  New  York  City;  10  cents. 


152  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

telligence,  and  character.  The  main  thought  in  physical  educa- 
tion can  therefore  not  be  the  body  alone.  "The  brain,  more  quickly 
and  fully  than  any  other  part  of  the  human  organism,  receives  the 
advantage  of  better  digestion,  fuller  breathing,  and  more  energetic 
circulation  of  rich  blood,"  and  so  must  be  considered  in  any  course 
of  physical  education.  Another  important  function  of  physical 
education  is  to  develop  the  individual's  power  to  execute  plans  in 
the  face  of  seemingly  insurmountable  obstacles.  That  is,  physical 
education  must  develop  body,  mind,  and  character.  Hence  it  de- 
serves a  high  place  in  every  school's  program  of  studies. 

Before  any  school  can  make  for  itself  a  valuable  curriculum  in 
physical  education,  it  must  plan  time  for  the  subject;  must  see  that 
there  is  a  suitable  place  for  exercise,  in  inclement  as  well  as  in  fair 
weather;  and  must  see  that  one  or  more  teachers  in  the  corps  know 
the  underlying  principles  of  physical  education  and  believe  heartily 
enough  in  the  work  to  do  it  intelligently  and  well.  Then  a  course 
may  be  arranged  which  should  take  into  account:  (1)  The  various 
means  of  securing  the  desired  results;  (II)  the  gradation  of  exer- 
cises to  fit  the  children's  developing  bodies,  thought-power,  and 
ideals;  and  (III)  the  adaptation  of  (I)  and  (II)  to  the  equipment 
possible  to  secure. 

Since  space  does  not  permit  a  full  discussion  of  these  three  factors,  an  outline 
of  them  is  given,  accompanied  by  occasional  parenthetical  suggestions  of  elabora- 
tion: 
I.  Means  of  securing  a  sound  body,  mind,  and  character. 

A.  Health  inspection  of  children — 

1.  To  correct,  where  possible,  physical  defects. 

2.  To  prevent  the  spread  of  contagious  and  infectious  diseases. 

3.  To  produce  cleanliness  and  right  habits  of  living. 

B.  Example — 

1.  Of  the  finest  people  in  the  community. 

2.  Of  the  teacher,  who  must  be  honorable,  self-controlled,  and  physi- 

cally sound. 

3.  Of  other,  especially  older,  children  in  the  school. 

C.  Right  habits  in  children  themselves. 

1.  Play. 

a.  For  securing  perfectly  free  body  movements. 

b.  For  securing  benefits  to  every  part  of  the  body — lungs,  heart, 

digestive  organs,  muscles,  brain,  etc. 

c.  For  giving  expression  to  children's  emotions  or  ideas,  as  when 

second-grade  children  played  Indian  and  composed  a  harvest 
dance. 

Note:  Through  giving  expression  to  his  ideas  and  his  emotions,  the  individual  who  profits 
by  his  experience  soon  learns  at  least  three  lessons:  (1)  To  evaluate  his  own  and  others'  ideas  and 
emotions — nood  judgment;  (2)  to  select  the  most  desirable  social  forms  of  expression  to  fit  worthy 
ideas  and  attitudes — good  manners;  and  ('&)  to  make  habitual  those  forms  of  expression  which  held 
him  to  attain  what  he  considers  valuable  ends — poise,  control. 

In  childhood,  these  ends  may  be  learning  to  walk,  marching  like  a  soldier,  running  in  a  race, 
or  hitting  a  ball.  The  inexperienced  teacher  needs  to  be  cautioned  against  overemphasizing 
formal  exercises  which  to  the  child  seem  useless.  Daily  practice  in  working  out  a  harvest  (lance 
witli  which  to  entertain  another  class  will  accomplish  better  results  than  will  isolated  drills  in- 
cluding the  same  movements. 

d.  For  pure  fun  and  a  cheerful  outlook  on  life. 

e.  For  motivating  needed  formative  and  corrective  exercises. 


Physical  Education — Outline.  153 

2.  Formative  exercises  through  gymnastics  or  directed  movements — 

a.  For  correct  breathing. 

b.  For  correct  sitting  and  standing. 

c.  For  graceful  movements,  poise  of  body,  clear  eyes,  straightfor- 

ward attitude,  pleasing  countenance,  etc. 
(Not  a  complete  list.) 

3.  Corrective  exercises  (for  the  same  objects  if  necessary). 

4.  Games — 

a.  For  teaching  the  lessons  of — 

(1)   Cooperation.     (2)   Bearing  defeat  bravely. 
(.3)   Submission  to  law  (more  restricted  movements  necessary 
than  in  play). 

(4)  Fair  play. 

(5)  Generosity  towards  opponents  who  do  good  work. 

(6)  Loyalty.     (7)   Modesty  over  successes. 
(And  other  lessons.) 

b.  For  securing  greater  poise  and  grace  in  carriage — easy  control  of 

the  body  without  self-consciousness — through — 
(1)  Singing  games.     (2)   Rhythmic  and  folk  dancing. 
(3)   Dramatizations. 

c.  For  entertaining  others,  as  in  festivals. 

(1)  Parents.     (2)  Other  grades. 

5.  Sports — 

a.  To  induce   fearlessness,   right  daring,   or  courage,   from   which 

there  results  a  feeling  of  power.  (Swimming  and  riding,  for 
example,  teach  this.) 

b.  To  give  opportunity  for  growth  in  initiative,  in  making  rapid 

decisions,  and  then  in  promptly  and  energetically  executing 
those  decisions.     (As  in  football.) 

c.  To  encourage  renewed  effort  in  the  face  of  defeat,  self-imposed 

practice  and  patient  effort,  individual  responsibility,  and 
highest  cooperation.  (As  in  any  competitive  sport — hockey, 
baseball,  football,  etc.) 

6.  Work  done  in  school  and  at  home. 

a.  For  the  development  of — 

(1)   Persistence.     (2)   Reliability. 
(See  Ethics  Course.) 

b.  As  a  means  to  apply  lessons  about  posture,   prolongation   of 

effort,  attention,  etc. 
D.  Precept — 

1.  Found  in  stories. 

a.  Historical.  b.  Literary.  c.  Like  "Sure  Pop." 

2.  Found  in  a  study  of  physiology,  hygiene,  sanitation,  etc. — 

a.  Through  a  well-chosen  text-book. 

b.  Through  general-exercise  talks  suited  to  the  child's  understand- 

ing and  needs. 

c.  By  following  some  such  outline  as  this: 

A.   Building  up  the  body  in  general. 

1.  Bones,  or  framework. 

a.  Function  and  composition  of  bones. 

b.  Food  to  eat  for  the  health  of  bones. 

c.  Posture,  sitting  and  standing,  for  the  sake  of  the  skeleton. 

Note:  To  learn  by  experiment  of  what  two  main  substances  bone  is  composed,  and  which 
substance  predominates  at  different  ages  in  an  individual's  life,  is  the  finest  kind  of  basis  for  mak- 
ing the  child  conscious  of  his  own  posture,  as  well  as  thoughtful  about  giving  room  on  the  pavement, 
or  in  offering  aid,  to  the  stooped  grandfather  who,  fearing  the  consequences  of  a  fall,  seems  to 
"creep"  along. 

2.  Muscles. 

a.  Function  of  muscles,     b.   Food  to  build  muscles, 
c.  The  value  of  exercise. 

3.  The  skin. 

a.  Function  and  general  structure  of. 

b.  Special  forms  of — teeth,  hair,  nails. 

c.  Effect  on  skin,  or  special  forms  of  skin,  of — 

(1)  Food. 

(a)   Kind,      (b)   Frequency  of  eating, 
(c)  Habits  of  chewing,  etc. 


154  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

(2)  Clothing. 

(a)   Material,      (b)  Tightness  of. 
(Not  complete  list.) 

(3)  Bathing.      (4)   Sleep. 

(5)   Housing — Ventilation,  etc. 

B.  Keeping  well  because  of  free  circulation  of  good  blood. 

1.   Foods  to  make  good  blood.     2.  Proper  clothing.     3.   Exercise. 
(List  to  be  extended  if  desired.) 

C.  Preventing  disease  through  keeping  the  respiratory  system  in  proper 

condition. 

1.  The  nasal  passages.- 

a.  Need  of  keeping  passages  well  cleansed. 

b.  Need  of  breathing  through  the  nose. 

2.  The  throat. 

a.  The  lodging-place  of  many  disease  germs — as  diphtheria,  typhoid. 

b.  Need  of  gargling,  etc. 

3.  The  lungs. 

a.  Proper  methods  of  breathing. 

b.  Outdoor  air  compared  with  indoor  air. 

c.  Ventilation  of  rooms;  how  secured. 

d.  Prevention  and  cure  of  pulmonary  diseases. 

e.  Cautions  concerning  the  breathing  of  metal  or  other  dusts  in 

certain  occupations. 

D.  A  sense  of  power  acquired  through  proper  attention  to  the  digestive  tract. 

1.  The  mouth.     (See  throat  above.) 

a.   Care  of  teeth,     b.   Cleansing  the  mouth. 

2.  The  stomach. 

a.  Eating  food  that  the  stomach  can  dispose  of. 

(1)   Kinds.      (2)   Cooking  of.      (3)   To  be  chewed,  how. 

(4)  Kept  sanitary,  how.     Preventing  dust,  germs,   flies,  for 

example. 

b.  Eating  seldom  enough  to  give  the  stomach  a  chance  to  do  its 

work — that  is,  not  "munching." 

c.  Need  of  pure  water. 

d.  Diseases  of  the  stomach — prevention  and  cure. 

3.  The  excretory  organs. 

a.  Need  of  keeping  them  active,     b.   Kinds  of  food  to  eat  to  assist. 
c.   Prevention  and  cure  of  diseases  of  these  organs. 

E.  Need  of  keeping  the  nervous  system  in  good  condition. 

1.  The  special  organs  of  sensation.     (Take  up  each  and  show  what 

care  needs  to  be  given  it,  since  the  loss  of  sight,  hearing,  etc, 
leaves  one  seriously  handicapped  for  life.) 

2.  Care  of  the  nerves  themselves;  value  of  sleep,  of  play,  etc. 

3.  The  brain. 

a.  Need  of  pure  blood  sufficiently  supplied,  hence-^- 

(1)  Avoid  wrong  foods  and  drinks.      (2)   Exercise  judiciously. 

b.  Need  of  thinking  to  develop  the  brain's  cells. 

F.  "Safety  first"  an  excellent  habit  to  acquire. 

1.  In  regard  to  risking  injury  to  whole  body  or  to  limbs,  as  in  crossing 

tracks,  etc. 

2.  In   regard   to  cuts,  sprains,   bruises,   broken   bones,   rusty   nails   or 

rake-teeth,  etc.  Get  the  habit  of  turning  down  rakes,  boards 
with  nails  in  them,  etc.  Get  the  habit  of  handling  tools  care- 
fully; of  looking  out  for  danger. 

3.  By    workmen    in    various    occupations — "Safety-first"    cautions    to 

railroad-men;  to  carpenters;  to  men  who  work  where  sawdust, 
emery  dust,  glass  splinters,  etc.,  fly;  to  painters,  etc. 

4.  "Safety-first"  rules  about  fires. 

G.  Injuries  and  illness  sometimes  come  in  spite  of  precautions. 

1.  First  aid  to  the  injured. 

a.  Simple  antiseptics  for  cuts. 

b.  Bandaging  for  wounds  and  broken  bones. 

c.  Stopping  nose-bleed,     d.    Burns,     e.    Helps  in  nausea. 

f.  Helping  headaches,     g.   Aiding  one  who  faints. 
h.   Resuscitating  one  who  seems  to  be  drowned. 

i.   Recognizing  symptoms  of  some  contagious  diseases. 
(List  not  complete.) 

2.  Care  of  the  sick — 

a.  In  fevers,     b.  In  contagious  diseases. 

c.  Invalid   foods  and  their  preparation.     (See  "cookery"  for  their 
serving.) 

3.  Quarantine. 

a.   Benefit  to  ill  person,     b.   Benefit  to  family. 
c.   Benefit  to  community. 

E.  Enlarging  the  ideals  of  children. 

1.  From  mere  obedience  to  the  letter  of  the  laws  of  health  to  regard  for 

the  spirit  of  those  laws. 

a.  Not  cleanliness  for  appearance  only,  but  for  ethical  reasons. 

b.  Not  clean  front  yards  only. 

2.  To  apply  to  the  city's — 

a.  Water  supply.       b.  Sewage  system.       c.  Food  inspection;  etc. 

3.  In  regard  to  precautionary  measures. 


Physical  Education. — Exercises  for  Grades.        155 

II.  Graded  exercises  to  fit  children's  growing  needs  should  be  chosen  from  the 

three  classes  of  exercises  which  follow. 

In  General  for  Grades  I,  II,  III. 

A.  Exercises  for  quickness,  habitual  control  or  skill,  and  fair  endurance. 

1.  "Sense-training"  exercises. 

2.  Walking,  running,  sliding,  skipping,  hopping,  etc. 

3.  Easy  forms  of  tactics,  calisthenics,  apparatus  and  field  work. 

4.  Simple  games  of  motion — running  games  like  "blackman,"  "fox  and 

geese,"  etc.,  for  example. 

5.  Rhythmic  games  and  marches. 

6.  Dramatization  of  labor  activities. 

7.  Some  "safety-first"  habits. 

In  General  for  Grades  IV,  V,  VI. 

B.  Exercises  for  strength  and  endurance. 

1.  Skill  and  quickness  kept  up  by  such  exercises  as  skating,  bicycling, 

swimming,  rowing,  riding,  etc. 

2.  Strength  and  endurance  cultivated  by  competitive  games  of  greater 

difficulty — pole-vaulting,  disk-throwing,  relay-racing,  and  the  like. 

3.  More  difficult  apparatus  and  calisthenic  work,  with  proper  breathing 

and  correct  carriage  emphasized. 

4.  More  "safety-first"  habits. 

5.  Some  ideas  about  first  aid  to  the  injured  taught. 

In  General  for  Grades  VII,  VIII,  and  Beyond. 

C.  Exercises  requiring  attention  and  alertness  besides  strength  and  endurance 

— somewhat  differentiated  for  boys  and  girls. 

1.  Boys — Wrestling,  boxing,  fencing,  baseball,  football,  etc.     Exercises 

to  develop  manly  courage  and  daring,  concentration  of  attention, 
and  the  spirit  of  cooperation.  Some  gymnastics  and  apparatus 
work.  Since,  psychologically,  boys  are  read}''  for  strenuous  effort 
before  they  are  strong  enough  for  it,  teachers  must  see  that 
physical  exercise  is  not  overdone. 

2.  Girls — Gymnastics,  light  apparatus  work,  volley-ball,  indoor  base- 

ball, basket-ball,  folk  and  perhaps  social  dancing.  Exercises  to 
develop  fairness,  self-confidence,  cooperation,  and  womanliness. 
Both  sexes  should  have  acquired  habits  of  "safety  first"  and 
knowledge  of  simple  first  aids  to  the  injured. 

III.  Adaptation  of  means  for  securing  results  and  of  graded  exercises  to  the  con- 

ditions of  a  local  school. 

A.  Questions  to  ask: 

1.  Size  of  playground,  if  any. 

2.  Size  of  and  appliances  in  gymnasium,  if  any. 

3.  Swimming  opportunities. 

4.  Number  of  teachers  equipped  to  lead  or  to  assist  in  the  work. 

5.  Cooperation  of  the  community  on  each  subject. 

6.  Money  that  may  be  spent. 

7.  Apparatus  able  to  be  made  by  pupils  themselves. 

8.  Means  of  ventilating  schoolrooms  if  they  must  be  used  as  gymnasiums. 

a.  Desks  make  fine  apparatus. 

b.  But  the  air  is  vitiated  by  the  dust  raised. 

9.  Text-books,  if  any  are  used,  chosen  with  great  wisdom. 

10.  Time  allowed  for  the  work — whether  taken  from  school-day  or  not. 

B.  Choose  from  the  courses  in  hygiene  and  in  exercises  what  will  fit  the 

needs  of  each  grade  and  the  conditions  of  work.     (See  general  sug- 
gestions on  "Diagram"  accompanying  this  book.) 


156  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

IV.— INDUSTRY. 

As  was  said  on  page  125  and  shown  in  the  outline  on  pages  203- 
205,  the  great  bulk  of  industries  developed  as  man  tried  to  utilize 
or  adjust  himself  to  his  material  environment.  Nevertheless,  the 
present  forms  of  these  industries  could  not  have  developed  except 
as  man  made  adjustments  to  his  social  and  to  his  immaterial 
worlds.  Therefore  it  is  that  Industry  becomes  in  the  minds  of 
many  the  golden  link  which  binds  together  the  three  "worlds"  in 
which  man  moves — those  worlds  which  grow  out  of  and  end  in 
unity,  and  are  differentiated  only  that  adjustments  within  them 
can  be  both  better  interpreted  and  better  used  as  means  of  highest 
individual  as  well  as  group  development. 

With  the  evolution  of  modern  family  and  group  life,  the  period 
of  human  infancy  has  been  steadily  lengthening.  This  longer 
childhood  permits  an  indiivdual  to  postpone  to  a  later  and  ever 
later  date  in  his  life  his  final  choice  of  a  vocation.  When  the  ex- 
isting typical  industries  with  all  their  modern  complexities  are 
studied,  the  wisdom  of  delayed  complete  adjustment  is  evident; 
but  that  youth  should  (in  a  relatively  care-free  way)  prepare  for 
such  adult  adjustment  is  recognized  by  all.  Through  play,  curi- 
osity, imitation,  emulation,  or  imagination,  and  some  required 
duties,  children  should  become  acquainted  with  the  larger  princi- 
ples of  industry  long  before  their  feet  must,  "like  a  colt's,  for  work 
be  shod  and  made  to  tread  the  mills  of  toil." 

A.— INDUSTRIAL  ARTS. 

A  study  of  the  world's  industries  becomes  a  valuable  bit  of 
school  subject-matter,  if  used  to  give  pupils — 

1.  A  background  of  fundamental  information. 

2.  An  appreciation  of — 

a.  Different  men's  work  in  the  world. 

b.  Division  of  labor. 

c.  Highest  cooperation. 

3.  The  ability  to  choose  for  their  life-work  what  they  can  do 

best  for  their  highest  self-realization,  whether  that  be  post- 
setting,  cooking,  or  prescribing  medicine  for  the  ill. 

Note:  Such  study  prevents  wrongly  or  carelessly  chosen  work — work  that 
narrows  the  mind,  produces  self-seeking,  shirking,  or  loss  of  faith  in  one's  fellows; 
that  engenders  bitterness  and  discontent  with  life — work  for  which  the  individual 
has  neither  ability  nor  taste — work  chosen  because  of  some  false  notion  that  a 
man  is  made  by  the  kind  of  work  he  does,  rather  than  by  the  quality  of  that  work. 


Industrial  Arts.  157 

Keeping  in  mind  the  three  aims  given  above,  it  seems  natural 
that  the  work  of  the  primary  grades  should  be  chosen  largely  to 
satisfy  the  first  aim,  that  of  intermediate  grades  to  satisfy  the  sec- 
ond, and  that  of  the  grammar  and  higher  grades  to  satisfy  the  last. 
Since  many  books  on  all  phases  of  industrial  or  occupation  work 
are  now  available,  teachers  of  primary  grades  need  no  detailed  in- 
structions here  regarding  paper  cutting  and  tearing,  modeling  in 
some  plastic  material,  weaving  rugs,  or  making  baskets.  Fitting 
up  a  sand-table  to  show  a  coal-mine,  or  Peter  Rabbit  in  his  event- 
ful journeys  about  Mr.  McGregor's  garden,  or  some  one  of  the 
"Seven  Little  Sisters,"  is  an  old  story  to  most  teachers.  The  study 
of  all  the  processes  through  which  wool  passes  from  the  sheep  to  a 
woolen  dress  or  coat;  the  building  of  leaf  and  stick  houses  on  the 
playground,  or  of  tent-homes  and  caves,  as  children  study  the  evo- 
lution of  our  present  homes;  the  making  of  miniature  rugs,  ham- 
mocks, and  other  furnishings  for  a  home;  making  toys,  using  the 
wood  economically  and  to  produce  the  best  result  with  the  least 
expenditure  of  energy,  as  for  example  planning  that  the  edges  in 
a  toy  which  must  be  whittled  shall  parallel  the  grain  of  the  wood, 
are  all  familiar  projects. 

If,  in  upper  grades,  the  industrial  work  of  boys  and  girls  is  differ- 
entiated, boys  usually  do  more  complex  work  at  the  bench,  or  in 
building  a  real  shed  needed  by  some  boy,  or  by  the  school,  for  a 
pet  animal;  lay  some  concrete  walk  or  some  bit  of  masonry;  do 
even  real  printing  of  programs  or  other  needed  school  material;  or 
apprentice  themselves  for  a  short  time  daily  and  on  Saturday  to 
some  iron-worker,  plumber,  or  carpenter.  Girls  take  a  definite 
course  in  cookery,  sewing,  or  general  home  economics;  care  of  little 
children;  sanitation;  etc. 

Emergencies  and  first  aid  to  the  injured  should  be  known  to  both 
sexes,  as  should  simple  household  tinkering — sawing,  making  and 
putting  up  a  shelf,  renovating  screen  doors,  gates,  water-faucets; 
remedying  simple  leaks,  stoppage  in  the  plumbing  at  the  "trap"; 
and  so  on. 

Both  boys  and  girls  should  be  helped  to  study  different  men  and 
women  in  the  community,  as  well  as  in  history  and  literature,  and 
to  find  for  themselves  the  elements  of  success.  They  may  also 
profitably  try  different  kinds  of  work  during  several  vacations  or 
on  Saturdays,  to  learn  that  all  successful  work  demands: 

1.  Skill  and  increasing  accuracy. 

2.  Thinking  and  planning. 

3.  Pride  in  work  well  done. 

4.  Ambition  to  improve  the  work  rather  than  to  get  more  salary. 

5.  Profiting  by  mistakes  and  not  repeating  the  same  ones — being  willing  to' 

learn. 


158  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

A  complete  course  of  study  in  industries  distributed  by  grades 
for  all  schools  of  the  state  would  fill  a  single  volume,  since  no  two 
schools  could  possibly  need  the  same  course.  Some  would  empha- 
size mercantile  and  manufacturing  industries;  others  need  plant 
and  animal  husbandry;  others,  the  so-called  "trades";  others,  the 
y-'-i  professions." 

The  Department  of  Education  has  recently  issued  a  detailed 
course  of  study  in  industrial  arts  for  rural,  consolidated,  and  graded 
schools.  Such  experts  as  Miss  Shelland,  Miss  Berry,  and  Professor 
Brace,  have  given  this  course  their  best  effort.  In  larger  towns 
and  cities,  there  are  usually  employed  special  teachers  of  industrial 
arts  who  are  already  provided  with  their  own  good  courses  of  study. 
Since,  therefore,  it  seems  unnecessary  here  to  repeat  what  is  so 
excellently  done  elsewhere,  the  entire  field  is  outlined  in  a  some- 
what new  way  and  each  school  left  free  to  select  the  topics  it  de- 
sires to  emphasize.  (See  suggestions  on  "Diagram"  accompanying 
this  book.) 

ONE  OUTLINE  OF  THE  FIELD  OF  INDUSTRIES. 

I.  Hunting  and  Fishing — the  primitive  foundation  of  all  industry. 
A.  Hunting — ■ 

1.  Of  food-stuff,     (a)  Vegetable — nuts,  berries,  grains,  etc.     (b)  Animal 

— eggs,  fowls,  wild  animals,  etc. 

2.  Of  material  for  clothing — skins,  furs,  etc. 

3.  Of  material  for  shelter — -bark,  skins,  caves. 

4.  For  miscellaneous  purposes,     (a)   Sport,     (b)   Extermination  of  some 

pest,     (c)   Curiosity  and  exploration. 
B.  Fishing  (a  special  phase  of  hunting) — 

1.  For  food,     (a)  Immediate  needs,     (b)   For  sale  or  profit. 

(1)  Salmon,  (2)  tuna,  (3)  herring,  (4)  cod,  (5)  oysters,  etc. 

2.  For  miscellaneous  purposes,     (a)  Whales;  (b)  seals;  (c)  pearl  oysters 

and  clams;  (d)  sponges;  (e)  corals  and  shells,  etc. 
Characteristics  necessary  for  success. 

1.  Knowledge  of  the  habits  of  plant  or  animal  desired. 

2.  Hard  work  in  season  and  long  periods  of  comparative  idleness. 

3.  Patience,  endurance,  courage,  shrewdness  in  some  cases,  careful  plan- 

ning in  others  (trapping). 

Note:  The  work  outlined  in  this  section  appeals  most  to  primary  pupils,  who  naturally  cover 
the  points  in  their  study  of  primitive  life,  in  "Tree  Dwellers,"  and  in  "Seven  Little  Sisters,"  used 
in  geography. 

II.  Agricultural  Industries  (including  Shepherding). 
A.  Raising  plants — 

1.  For  food,  clothing,  etc. 

a.  For  food. 

(1)  Direct,     (a)  Vegetables,  (b)  grains  and  nuts,  (c)  fruits.    ' 

(2)  Indirect — to  feed  to  animals,     (a)  Grass  and  grains,  (b)  by- 
products (in  silo). 

b.  For  clothing. 

(1)  'Cotton.      (2)  Flax.      (3)   Hemp.      (4)   Miscellaneous— mul- 
berry for  silk  worm,  wood  fiber,  etc. 


Industrial  Arts. — The  Field  of  Industries.  159 

c.  For  shelter.     (1)  Trees — for  lumber;  (2)  miscellaneous — grass  for 

thatch;  cotton,  etc.,  for  tent  materials,  etc. 

d.  For  fuel.     (1)   Wood;   (2)   miscellaneous — by-products  from  cot- 

tonseed; stems  of  some  plants — as  in  firing  china,  etc. 

e.  For  pleasure.     (1)   Flowers,  for  beauty  or  fragrance. 
2.  For  family  needs  only,  or  for  sale. 

a.  For  family  needs  only.     (1)  Orchard,  (2)  berry  patch,  (3)  vegetable 

garden,  (4)  several  small  grain-fields,  (5)  pasture  and  meadow. 

b.  For  marketing.     (1)  Less  of  many  varieties  than  for  family;  (2) 

some  few  fruits,  grains,  or  vegetables  made  the  main  crop;  (3) 
some  things  raised  that  the  plants  and  seed  may  be  sold — nur- 
sery business. 

c.  Depending  on  acreage,  soil,  etc. 

(1)  Acreage,     (a)  Truck-farming  for  nearby-city  demands;   (b) 

corn,  tomatoes,  cucumbers,  etc.,  for  nearby  canning  fac- 
tories; (c)  berries,  melons,  etc.,  to  ship  ahead  of  northern 
season;  (d)  great  grain-fields,  as  in  Minnesota,  Iowa,  and 
the  Dakotas. 

(2)  Soil,  (a)  Fertile,  for  gardening  or  nursery  business;  (b) 
sterile,  to  be  treated  by  raising  leguminous  crops;  (c)  arid, 
to  be  irrigated  or  used  for  grazing. 

(3)  Climate  decides  selection  of  crop,  (a)  Tropical,  (b)  tem- 
perate, (c)  frigid. 

(4)  Surface  regulates  kind  of  cultivation,  whether  for  grain, 
grapes,  grass,  etc. 

Knowledge  demanded  for  success. 

a.  Know  soils. 

(1)  Chemical  composition. 

(a)  What  needed  for  crops;  (b)  which  crops  best  raised; 
(c)  how  rotate  crops  and  fertilize  to  keep  soil  up  to  its 
best. 

(2)  Moisture  or  aridity. 

(a)  Irrigation  problems;   (b)   "dry"  farming. 

b.  Know  how  to  select  and  save  seed. 

c.  Know  how  to  cultivate  crops. 

d.  Know  how  to  propagate  plants  in  other  ways  than  from  seed. 

(1)  Budding  and  grafting;  (2)  layering;  (3)  bulbs  and  "sets." 

e.  Know  how  to  systematize  work.     (1)   Sorting,   marking,   testing 

seeds  in  the  dull  season;  (2)  having  tools  and  implements  ready 
for  use;  (3)  keeping  ahead  of  work  so  that  a  temporary  "rush" 
can  be  met  with  comparatively  little  strain. 

f.  Know  the  value  of  broadening  one's  views.     (1)  Attending  univer- 

sity  "short   courses,"    farmers'   conventions,   etc.;    (2)    sending 
children  to  the  best  schools  for  their  needs;  (3)  taking  the  best 
periodicals;  (4)   trying  experiments;  (5)   taking  outings  or  trips 
occasionally,  etc. 
Raising  of  Animals. 
1.  For  family  needs. 

a.  Kinds.  (1)  Poultry  for  flesh  and  eggs;  (2)  cows  for  milk,  butter, 
and  cheese;  (3)  animals  for  meat  (beef,  mutton,  pork,  etc.);  (4) 
horses  or  other  draught  animals  for  labor;  (5)  bees  for  honey; 
(6)  cat  and  dog  for  helpers. 


160  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

b.  Problems  to  be  solved. 

(1)  Relation  of  plant  to  animal  life,  (a)  Plant  life  to  support 
animals;  (b)  animal  products  as  fertilizers. 

(2)  Profit  or  loss  in  keeping  (a)  one  cow;  (b)  a  few  chickens. 

(3)  Shelter  demanded  by  animals,     (a)   Cost  and  architecture; 

(b)  care  to  keep  sanitary. 

(4)  Knowledge  of  animal  ailments,  hygiene,  care,  etc. 

(5)  Knowing  how  to  use  products  to  best  advantage,  (a)  Milk 
and  its  uses,  (b)  Meats,  how  cured;  by-products,  how  used; 
lard,  hams,  dried  beef,  etc.  (c)  Eggs — how  preserved  for 
winter  use. 

2.  For  profit. 

a.  Kinds  (from  which  one  or  two  are  selected  by  a  single  stock  farmer). 
(1)  Poultry,  (a)  Chickens;  (b)  ducks;  (c)  geese;  (d)  turkeys; 
(e)  pigeons.  (2)  Milch  cows — dairying.  (3)  Beef  cattle — 
ranching.  (4)  Pigs.  (5)  Sheep — herding:  (a)  raised  for 
wool;  (b)  raised  for  flesh.  (6)  Bees.  (7)  Cats.  (8)  Dogs. 
(9)  Draught  animals.  (10)  Any  of  the  above  raised  for 
fancy  stock — (a)  greater  profit,  but  also  greater  risk.  (11) 
Miscellaneous;  in  special  regions — muskrats  for  fur;  canaries 
and  parrots;  oysters,  clams,  salmon,  etc.,  for  food;  game 
"preserves"  for  hunters,  deer,  buffalo,  camels,  etc.;  ostriches 
for  feathers;  alligators  for  skin;  etc. 
Knowledge  necessary  for  success. 

a.  Know  habits,  needs,  diseases,  etc.,  of  animal  selected  to  be  raised. 

b.  Know  how  to  breed  and  raise  stock  desired. 

c.  Know  how  to  prepare  and  to  ship.     (1)  If  alive — e.  g.,  cattle;  (2) 

if  killed — e.  g.,  poultry;  (3)  if  fragile — c.  g.,  eggs;  (4)  if  dressed 
— e.  g.,  skins. 

d.  Know  how  to  secure  products  when  they  alone  are  wanted.     (1) 

Honey — apiary;   (2)  milk  products — dairy. 

e.  Be  willing  to  work. 

(1)   Early  and  late  in  rush  seasons;  need  of  boys'  and  girls'  help 
at  such  times.     (2)   With  forethought  in  rest  seasons — re- 
pairing buildings,  fences,  etc. 
C.  The  privileges  and  pleasures  of  an  agricultural  life. 

1.  Its  independence. 

2.  Its  healthfulness. 

3.  Its  financial  returns  if  well  managed. 

4.  Its  opportunities  for  the  finest  kind  of  family  life. 

a.  Time  to  read  and  converse  together. 

b.  Children  share  all  the  problems,  hence  grow  educated. 

c.  Children  may  specialize  and  still  be  a  part  of  the  whole  life — divid- 

ing labor  and  cooperating.  (1)  Fruit  grower;  (2)  grain  grower; 
(3)  stock  raiser;  (4)  poultry  raiser;  (5)  dairyman;  (fi)  mechanic 
and  engineer;  (7)  architect  and  carpenter;  (8)  housekeeper  and 
cook;  (9)  seamstress;  all  needed  on  a  farm. 

5.  Its  building  of  character — patience,  forethought,  promptness,  dispatch, 

honesty,  courage,  perseverance,  industry,  attention  to  duty,  free  will, 
thinking,  good  judgment,  etc. 

Note:  The  line  of  work  just  outlined  appeals  to  pupils  of  every  grade.  Certain  phases 
should  be  selected  for  intensive  work  in  different  grades,  or  even  in  different  years  with  the  same 
grade.  In  rural  schools,  especially,  different  subdivisions  should  be  stressed  in  different  years. 
See  School  Education  during  1915-1918  for  treatment  of  different  topics. 


Industrial  Arts. — The  Field  of  Industries.  161 

III.  Mining  Industries. 

A.  Digging. — 1.  Sand  (for  building.)     2.  Clay  (for  brick).     3.  Limestone  (for 

plaster).  4.  Salt  (for  food  and  other  purposes).  5.  Soda  (for  food  and 
other  purposes).  6.  Wells  (for  water).  7.  Wells  (for  oil).  S.  Iron  ore  (in 
some  localities,  as  at  Hibbing).     9.  Agates,  etc. 

B.  Quarrying. — 1.  Rock  or  stone.     2.  Granite  and  marble.     3.  Coal  and  slate 

(in  some  localities;  e.  g.,  Pennsylvania). 

C.  Mining.— 1.  Coal.     2.  Iron.     3.  Copper.     4.  Silver.     5.  Gold.     6.  Miscella- 

neous— in  certain  regions,  tin,  radium,  diamonds,  amethysts,  etc. 
Characteristics  needed  for  success.     1.  Knowledge  of  methods  of  work  for  spe- 
cial materials  desired.     2.  Strong  nerves  in  the  face  of  grave  risk — "grit." 
3.  Courage  in  spite  of  disappointments — "pluck." 

Note:  The  mining  industries  appeal  to  fourth-grade  pupils  first,  and  again  to  eighth  in  con- 
nection with  their  composition  work  on  "World-builders"  or  on  their  future  vocations. 

IV.  Manufacturing  Industries. 

A.  To  supply  food. — 1.  Butter  and  cheese — dairy.     2.  Flour  and  by-products 

— mills.  3.  Breads.  4.  Breakfast  foods,  macaroni,  etc.  5.  Meat  and  fish 
— packing  companies,  preserving  companies,  and  canning  companies. 
6.  Vegetables  and  fruits — cannery,  pickle  factory,  vinegar  factory,  coffee, 
tea,  cocoa,  spice.  7.  Candy  factory.  8.  Refineries — for  sugar,  salt,  soda, 
baking-powder,  etc.     9.  Medicines,  extracts,  etc. 

B.  To  supply  clothing. 

1.  Spinning  and  attendant  processes.  (a)Cotton;  (b)  linen;  (c)  silk;  (d)  wool. 

2.  Weaving  and  attendant  processes. 

3.  Garment  making — sewing,  tailoring,  etc. 

a.  Underwear.     (1)  Knitting;  (2)  sewing;  (3)  finishing. 

b.  Outer  garments.     (1)  Men's  apparel;  (2)  women's  apparel. 

4.  Hat  making  and  attendant  processes,  such  as  straw-braiding,  artificial- 

flower  manufacture,  etc.     (a)  For  men;  (b)  for  women. 

5.  Glove  manufacture,     (a)  For  all  purposes;  (b)  of  many  materials. 

6.  Hosiery  and  shoe  manufacture. 

7.  Manufacture  of  storm  necessities,     (a)  Coats;  (b)  hats;  (c)  umbrellas. 

8.  Accessories  of  dress,    (a)  Handkerchiefs;  (b)  buttons,  hooks  and  eyes, 

etc.;  (c)  ribbons,  braids,  tapes,  etc.;  (d)  laces,  trimmings,  etc.;  (e) 
buckles,  hat-pins,  ornaments  of  all  kinds;  (f)  jewelry. 

C.  To  supply  homes  with  necessities,  comforts,  or  luxuries. 

1.  Wood-working  industries,     (a)   Lumbering;   (b)   saw-milling;   (c)   car- 

pentry; (d)  cabinet  making;  (e)  finishing  of  fine  woods;  (f)  furniture 
manufacturing;  (g)  clock-case  making,  (h)  Manufacture  of  musical- 
instrument  cases:  (1)  piano,  organ,  etc.;  (2)  violin,  guitar,  etc.;  (3) 
flute,  (i)  Match  and  kindling  manufacture,  (j)  Basket,  box,  barrel, 
bucket,  etc.,  manufacture,     (k)  Pencils,  etc. 

2.  Clay  and  stone  industries,     (a)  Brick  and  tile  manufacturing;  (b)  pot- 

teries— where  crude  crockery  is  made  to  finest  types  of  china  manu- 
facture; (c)  enamels;  (d)  "concrete,"  cement,  etc.;  (e)  stone  dressing; 
(f)  marble  working — from  mere  polishing  of  slabs  to  sculptured  pillars 
and  works  of  art. 

3.  Metal  working,     (a)  Steel  manufacture;  (b)  zinc  manufacture;  (c)  man- 

ufacture of  all  sorts  of  articles  from  different  metals. 

(1)  Nails,  screws,  bolts,  hinges,  knobs,  locks,  etc.;  (2)   faucets, 
pumps,   plumbing  pipes,   furnaces,   stoves,   etc.     (3)    farm 


162  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

machinery  and  tools;  (4)  cooking  utensils;  (5)  sewing  mate- 
rials— machines,  needles,  pins,  scissors,  etc.;  (6)  bird-cages, 
traps,  hunting  and  fishing  apparatus,  firearms,  etc.;  (7)  table 
utensils  (steel,  silver,  even  gold);  (8)  watch  and  clock  mak- 
ing; (9)  pen-points  and  -holders;  (10)  wire  netting  for  win- 
dows, fences,  and  many  purposes;  (11)  roof-gutters,  trim- 
mings, etc.;  (12)  beds  and  springs;  (13)  laundry  appliances; 
and  so  many  more  articles  that  a  complete  list  would  be  im- 
possible. 

4.  Coarse-cloth,  etc.,  manufacture,     (a)  Carpets,  rugs,  draperies,  etc.;  (b) 

bedding  of  all  kinds;  (c)  towels,  table  linen,  etc.;  (d)  linofelt  linings; 
(e)  awnings  and  hammocks;  (f)  straw  mattings,  shades,  etc.;  (g)  leather 
goods  of  all  kinds. 

5.  Paper  manufacture  for:  (a)  Books,  periodicals,  sheet  music,  and  related 

material;  (b)  calendars,  blotters;  (c)  stationery;  (d)  prints  of  art- 
works; (e)  wall  papers;  (f)  money,  stamps,  etc. 

6.  Printing  (of  all  things  named  under  5). 

7.  Glass  manufacture,     (a)  Dishes,  bottles,  etc.;  (b)  mirrors;  (c)  thermom- 

eters, etc. 
D.  To  supply  miscellaneous  wants  of  man.     (1)  Toilet  articles  and  utensils, 
such  as  soap,  brushes,  etc.;  (2)  inks,  dyes,  stains,  varnishes,  paints,  etc.; 
(3)  flags;  (4)  children's  toys,  adults'  games  and  sports  equipments;  (5)  ap- 
pliances for  stores,  banks,  etc. ;  (6)  appliances  for  all  forms  of  transportation. 
Characteristics  and  knowledge  necessary  for  success  in  manufacturing. 

1.  Keenness  to  see  need  of  an  article  and  cost  of  supplying  it. 

2.  Ability  to  buy  with  judgment  and  economy  the  raw  materials. 

3.  Ability  to  secure  loyal  cooperation  from  necessary  helpers,     (a)  Justice 

in  dealing  with  men;  (b)  patience  in  training  unskilled  labor;  (c)  rec- 
ognition of  ability;  (d)  reasonable  protection  of  men  from  harm — 
sympathy;  (e)  leadership  qualities,  etc. 

4.  Honesty  in  producing  a  product  that  will  be  the  best  of  its  kind  for  the 

cost. 

5.  Knowing  how  to  market  the  product. 

6.  Ability  to  profit  by  mistakes,  checking  waste,  and  constantly  improv- 

ing the  efficiency  of  the  plant,  hence  knowing  the  whole  business  well. 

Note:  Manufacturing  industries  especially  interest  fifth-  and  sixth-grade  children  who  are 
at  the  age  to  experiment.  Definite  values  lie  in  the  making  of  many  single  articles,  and  the  manual 
training  course  can  be  closely  related  to  this  interest.  Girls  can  spin,  weave,  make  soap,  and  cook. 
Boys  enjoy  engines,  derricks,  mechanical  toys,  and  a  real  telegraph  system.  The  section  on 
"characteristics,"  etc.,  is  for  use  in  eighth  grade,  in  the  study  of  vocntions. 

V.  Commercial  Industries. 

Community  life  demands  cooperation,  resulting,  finally,  in  division  of 
labor.  At  that  stage  men  sell  their  surplus  products,  thus  earning  a  live- 
lihood for  their  families.  There  seem  to  be  three  main  kinds  of  supplies 
to  be  sold,  though  the  line  of  demarcation  can  not  always  be  clearly  drawn. 
These  are  labor,  produce,  and  thought,  each  designated  by  the  prominent 
element  present,  even  though  the  other  elements  are  never  absent;  for  ex- 
ample, a  delivery-boy  who  sells  his  labor,  handles  produce,  and  has  to  use 
thought. 
A.  The  more  usual  forms  of  labor  (unskilled  and  skilled)  are  exchanged  for 
money  by  the  following  persons:  Baker,  carpenter,  printer, '  pavement 
maker,    plasterer,    paper-hanger,    barber,    drayman,    liveryman,    mason, 


Industrial  Arts. — The  Field  of  Industries.  163 

blacksmith,  wheelwright,  locksmith,  chair-caner,  wagoner  or  cartwright, 
day  laborer,  laundryman,  washer-woman,  charwoman,  house-cleaner, 
tinker,  plumber,  shoe-repairer,  wood-sawyer,  serving-maid,  seamstress, 
waitress,  saddler,  chauffeur,  maid  of  all  work,  man  of  all  work,  employ- 
ment agents,  clerk,  bookkeeper,  stenographer,  ploughman,  hired-man, 
farm-hand,  butcher,  nurseryman,  gardener,  surveyor. 
Qualities  needed  for  being  a  successful  laborer. 

1.  Willingness  to  work — industry. 

2.  Honesty  in  service  as  well  as  in  relation  to  employer's  property. 

3.  Knowledge  of  the  labor  undertaken — more  or  less  skill  demanded 

of  particular  sorts. 

4.  Willingness  to  do  what  the  employer  wants — that  is,  flexible,  adapt- 

able, but  not  servile. 

5.  Possessed  of  initiative  or  of  power  to  shoulder  the  responsibility 

and  use  judgment  if  left  alone  to  do  the  work. 

6.  Promptness  and  reliability. 

7.  Physical  strength  for  the  task  selected. 

B.  Men  who  give  their  time,  labor,  and  thought,  to  the  handling  of  produce 

which  they  buy  and  then  sell  at  a  profit  so  as  to  insure  them  a  living,  are 
called  merchants.  Some  well-known  ones  are  the  grocer,  dry-goods  mer- 
chant, clothier,  hatter,  milliner,  shoe  merchant,  jeweler,  hardware  mer- 
chant, florist,  confectioner,  stationer,  book  dealer,  laces-,  hosiery-,  and 
glove-shop  keepers,  druggist,  fuel  merchant,  millstuff  and  feed-store  keeper, 
bird  dealer,  furrier,  publisher,  dealer  in  rubber  and  sporting  goods,  auto- 
mobile-shop keeper,  dealer  in  conveyances,  furniture  dealer,  art  dealer, 
music  dealer,  real-estate  dealer,  and  dealer  in  antiques. 
Some  qualities  demanded  for  this  industry: 

1.  Faithfulness  to  duty;  promptness,  dispatch,  reliability,  etc. 

2.  Good  judgment  in  purchasing — ability  to  see  the  consumers'  needs, 

the  value  of  the  goods  if  held  some  time,  etc. 

3.  Ability  to  display,  advertise,  and  so  to  dispose  of  the  merchandise. 

4.  Ability  to  direct  helpers  if  the  business  is  large. 

5.  System,  so  as  to  check  up  losses  and  prevent  them,  or  to  add  to  the 

lines  of  profit. 
G.  Understanding  human  nature  and  fitting  business  to  such  knowl- 
edge. 

C.  Men  who  give  others  the  benefit  of  their  thought,  judgment,  imagination, 

and  ideals,  incidentally  earning  a  livelihood  thereby,  make  the  third  group, 
often  called  professional  men.  The  group  includes  bankers,  brokers  (of 
the  right  sort);  formulators  and  managers  of  insurance,  transportation, 
and  utility  corporations;  lawyers;  civil  engineers;  architects;  statesmen; 
scientists;  inventors;  physicians;  artists;  music  composers;  authors; 
teachers  (real  teachers);  pastors;  efficiency  experts;  vocational  advisers. 
Home-making  and  parenthood  are  growing  to  be  classed  among  the  pro- 
fessions. 

Characteristics  demanded  for  success  in  the  professions: 

1.  The  general  characteristics  demanded    for  success  in  any  Jine — 

honesty,  industry,  dependableness,  etc. 

2.  Superior  intellectuality. 

3.  Long  preparation  for  life  work — in  school,  in  travel,  in  apprentice- 

ship, etc. 


164  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

4.  Broad    general    culture    and   pleasing   personality — clean,    frank, 

sympathetic,  etc. 

5.  Altruism,   willingness   to  lose  one's  life  in  service   for   mankind, 

thinking  less  of  money  returns  than  of  the  good  one  may  do. 

6.  The  will  to  do  one's  duty  in  whatever  form  it  appears — to  be  true 

to  one's  ideals. 

7.  Superior  power  of  expression — in  words,  acts,  writing;  on  canvas; 

in  whatever  medium  necessary  for  the  profession  selected. 

Note:  The  commercial  industries  will  naturally  appeal  to  upper-grade  pupils,  whose  arith- 
metic, geography,  history,  ethics,  vocational  guidance,  and  composition  subject-matter  relate  to 
the  field  or  utilize  material  found  therein. 

B.— THRIFT. 

In  the  daily  use  o*f  material  from  first  grade  up,  thrift,  but  not 
littleness  or  stinginess,  should  be  cultivated.  The  value  of  thrift 
becomes  evident  to  intermediate-  and  upper-grade  pupils  as  they 
study  real  industries  and  note  the  relation  of  expenditures  and 
waste  to  profit,  in  by-products  as  well  as  in  the  main  output. 

See  pages  104-124,  177-188,  and  the  "Diagram"  accompanying 
this  book,  for  suggestions  for  teaching  thrift  to  boys  and  girls. 

C— VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE. 

This  has  been  so  often  referred  to  in  the  subject-matter  outlined 
for  each  grade,  that  little  more  needs  to  be  said.  See  pp.  55,  95, 
122,  144,  152,  156,  175,  180,  188,  as  well  as  the  "Diagram." 

At  the  period  of  adolescence  "the  one  great  field  of  thought 
which  appeals  to  the  child  is  the  field  of  human  adult  industry. 
He  wants  to  do  real  things  in  a  real  way,  and  is  satifised  with  doing 
miniature  things  in  a  miniature  way  only  as  a  substitute  and  illus- 
tration of  the  reality  he  seeks." 

Boys,  especially,  want  to  earn  money,  and  should  therefore  be 
encouraged  to  learn  about  trades,  industries,  and  professions — not 
to  make  early  and  irrevocable  choice  of  what  they  will  do,  but  to 
know  better  what  the  world  wants  done  and  the  sort  of  persons 
needed  to  do  that  work.*  They  should  be  encouraged  to  try  what- 
ever occupations  parents  will  consent  to  their  trying. 

Conversations  should  constantly  be  had  over  the  knowledge, 
temperament,  and  character,  requisite  for  success  in  various  gainful 
occupations.  Children  should  be  helped  to  see  that,  unless  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  do  so,  it  is  a  very  short-sighted  policy  to  leave 
school  early  for  the  sake  of  earning  a  relatively  small  sum,  when 
more  education  might  later  give  a  greater  earning  capacity,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  increased  ability  to  enjoy  life.f 

*  See  books  on  vocational  guidance  referred  to  on  p.  301;  in  the  Minnesota  School  Library 
List,  p.  27;  and  in  articles  on  the  subject. 

t  Sec  (1)  The  Elementary  School  Journal,  p.  369,  March,  1910,  "The  Curriculum  and  Vocational 
Guidance."  (2)  Education,  Vol.  34,  pp.  SI  and  153,  or  October  and  November,  1913,  article  by 
Coover  showing  that  more  education  pays.  (3)  Journal  of  Education,  p.  651,  December  30,  1915 
—  Winship's  description  of  the  work  in  l'ortchester,  N.  Y.,  and  Cincinnati,  to  prove  the  value  of 
schooling.  (1)  Department  of  the  Interior,  Bureau  of  Education,  Bulletin  No.  22,  1917 — "The 
Money  Value  of  Education,"  Ellis — 15c. 


Citizenship.— History.  165 


V.— CITIZENSHIP. 

In  an  effort  to  find  the  name  best  suited  to  the  study  of  those 
problems  of  human  adjustment  which  make  for  higher  ideals  of  in- 
stitutional as  well  as  of  individual  life,  citizenship  was  decided  upon. 
It  includes  the  familiar  subject  of  history,  together  with  elementary 
phases  of  civics,  economics,  sociology,  and  ethics. 

There  are  two  main  means  of  teaching  this  important  subject: 

(1)  Direct  experience,  demonstrated  (a)  in  the  conduct  of  pupils  in  daily 
life  and  particularly  in  the  institutional  life  of  the  school;  (b)  in  the  organization 
of  clubs  and  societies  which  need  the  making  of  a  constitution  and  the  exercise 
of  simple  parliamentary  practice;  (c)  in  keeping  up  with  such  current  events  as 
interpret  the  community  life  and  point  to  the  community's  problems;  and  (d)  in 
the  study  of  civics  (outlined  below). 

(2)  Indirect  experience,  gained  through  a  study  (a)  of  historical  material 
and  of  real  history;  (b)  of  ethics;  and  (c)  of  literature. 

Because  of  the  close  inter-relationship  between  history,  civics, 
current  events,  and  moral  training,  fully  differentiated  courses  in 
the  several  subjects  could  not  be  planned.  They  will  be  seen  to 
overlap  one  with  another,  as  well  as  with  science  and  industry. 

A.— HISTORY. 

In  history  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  prepare  a  cumulative 
course,  unified  (to  the  teacher)  by  one  big  thought, — nationalism 
or  internationalism, — and  distributed  through  the  grades  (1)  to 
correspond  with  children's  developing  consciousness  of  institutional 
life,  (2)  to  interrelate  with  the  other  subject-matter  of  a  grade  so 
that  each  year's  work  may  be  a  unit,  and  (3)  to  adhere  as  closely 
as  possible  to  the  recommendations  of  the  Committee  of  Eight.* 
The  slight  variations  that  afe  made  from  the  committee's  course 
can  be  fully  justified,  since,  as  the  report  says, — 

"If  the  unity  of  the  general  theme  can  be  realized  by  some  other  treatment 
in  individual  instances,  by  omissions,  or  by  more  detailed  work,  this  will  not  in- 
terfere with  the  aim  of  the  plan.  The  capacity  of  pupils  differs  from  school  to 
school.  No  plan  can  be  regarded  as  adaptable  to  all  conditions.  Above  all  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  fundamental  aim  is  not  to  store  the  child's  mind 
with  many  detailed  facts  of  general  history,  but  to  make  certain  impressions 
which  shall  exercise  a  guiding  influence  over  the  child's  intellectual  growth;  to 
furnish  him  with  a  framework  into  which  his  later  reading  or  study  shall  place 
what  he  acquires."! 

*  Charles  Scribner's  Sons.     Necessary  in  every  school  library. 

t  The  course  planned  has  also  taken  account  of  the  report  of  the  Committee  on  Elimination, 
printed  in  Bulletin  No.  51,  in  which  "for  purposes  of  examination  only,  "there  are  suggested  37 
dates  (to  be  acquired  during  six  years,  hence  an  average  of  about  six  a  year);  40  biographies  (in 
eight  years);  4  colonies,  not  over  10  battles,  and,  besides  our  local  Minnesota  history,  only  about 
10  important  historical  topics,  for  acquisition  in  two  years. 


166  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

The  Growth  of  Nationalism. — Outline  of  the  Course. 

Grades  I,  II,  III. 

I.  Primitive  Life. 

A.  Tree-dwellers.     B.   Cave-men.     C.  Minnesota*  Indian  life  in  its  primi- 
tive stages.     (And  history  in  connection  with  special  days.) 
Grade  IV. 

II.  Tribal  Life. 

A.  Hunting  tribes. 

1.  Land  hunting. 

2.  Fishing. 

3.  Warring  tribes  such  as  the  Goths,  Huns,  Vandals,  and  Vikings. 

B.  Shepherd  tribes. 

C.  Agricultural  tribes. 

Minnesota  Indian  life  in  its  tribal  stages:  The  Six  Nations;  the 
Eskimos;  the  Cliff-dwellers.     Hebrew  shepherds.     Vikings. 
Grade  V. 

III.  National  Life. 

A.  Chinese  (1  to  2  weeks). 

B.  Greek  (10  to  12  weeks). 

C.  Roman  (10  to  12  weeks). 

D.  General  changes  in  Europe  during  the  1000  years  which  followed  the 

breaking  up  of  the  Roman  Empire  (about  one  week). 

E.  The  United  States. 

1.  Pre-national  life  in  America. 

a.  General  effect  of  discovery,  exploration,  and  settlement,  noting 

the  place  Minnesota  had  in  all  these  movements  (10  to  12 
weeks)  •• 
Grade  VI. 

b.  European    ancestry    of    Americans.     Review    earlier    work    on 

Greece  and  Rome  (4  to  6  weeks) .     Expand  the  barely  touched- 

upon  interim  between  the  decline  of  Rome  and  the  discovery 

of  America  into  a  study  of  the   European  peoples    whose 

children  made  (and  make)  America: 

(1)  The  Germans  (3  to  5  weeks).     (2)   The  French  (1  week). 

(3)   The  Spanish   (1   week).     (4)   The  Norse   (1   to  3   weeks). 

(5)   The  English  (7  to  9  weeks).         (6)   The  Dutch  (1  week). 

(7)   Other  nationalities  to  fit  local  needs. 

Besides  this  study  of  individual  peoples,  children's  atten- 
tion must  be  drawn  to  the  general  social,  political,  and  reli- 
gious life  of  the  middle  ages  (1-2  weeks),  the  crusades,  pil- 
grimages, and  commercial  travel  (2-3  weeks),  the  discovery, 
exploration,  and  colonization  of  the  New  World  seen  from  the 
viewpoint  of  a  resident  of  the  Old  World  (2-3  weeks),  and  the 
recognition  of  the  fact  that  America  is  still  the  nation's  "melt- 
ing pot"  (2-3  weeks). 
Grade  VII. 

c.  The  Colonial  period  of  United  States  history,  with  the  Revolu- 

tionary war  to  end  it.     (One  year). 
Grade  VIII. 

2.  National  life.     Meaning  of  July  4th,  the  New  Republic,  territorial 

expansion,  the  great  West  and  Northwest  (with  Minnesota's 
place  noted),  industrial  expansion,  commercial  expansion,  the 
discovery  of  gold  in  California,  danger  to  the  Union,  problems 
after  the  Civil  War,  problems  today  (5-6  months);  Minnesota's 
parallel  development  (3-4  months)  to  be  treated  alone  near  the 
end  of  the  year  or  to  be  woven  into  the  general  United  States 
history  throughout  the  year. 

IV.  "Internationality,"  the  hope  of  the  future  (2  to  4  weeks,  if  the  teacher  can 

get  it  in). 
A.  Movements  towards  world  peace  before  1914. 
*  Substitute  for  Minnesota  any  desired  state. 


History. — Grades  I,  II,  and  III.  167 

B.  The  present  Great  War — present  and  probable  future  effects  of  this  war 

on  world  peace,  on  industry,  on  commerce,  on  Americans'  attitude 
towards  the  alien. 

C.  America's  problems. 

D.  Minnesota's  problems. 

E.  Our  individual  problems. 

Grades  I,  II,  and  III. 

In  childhood — as  in  the  childhood  of  the  race — fact  and  fancy- 
are  inextricably  mixed.  With  no  developed  sense  of  either  time 
or  space,  the  child  sees  without  shock  strange  happenings  occur  in 
juxtaposition.  Myths,  legends,  traditions,  and  folk-tales,  devel- 
oped by  child-like  peoples,  are  the  natural  materials  to  satisfy  chil- 
dren of  these  grades.  People  are  as  yet  to  the  child  little  more  than 
objects  to  be  used  for  his  own  ends,  hence  he  cares  little  for  consis- 
tency but  wants  people  in  action.  Life  is  a  puzzle,  and  he  is  inter- 
ested to  learn  how  heroes  of  history  and  of  literature  acted  in  dra- 
matic situations  still  simple  enough  for  him  to  conceive. 

This  is,  too,  the  period  when  the  child  is  learning  to  know  the 
world  about  him  and  his  place  in  that  world. 

The  work  in  "history"  is  closely  allied  to  that  in  language, 
geography,  and  industry,  to  all  of  which  the  teacher  should  con- 
stantly refer. 

In  connection  with  the  celebrations  of  special  days,  it  will  be 
natural  for  children  to  be  told  stories  or  incidents  of  great  men 
and  women  of  the  past.  Although  the  days  to  be  celebrated  will 
be,  in  the  main,  identical  for  the  first  three  grades,  the  point  of 
emphasis  can  be  varied,  as  the  following  suggestions  will  indicate: 

Grade  I,  October  12,  Columbus — His  boyhood,  what  people  knew  of  the  world 
450  years  ago,  why  we  celebrate  October  12.  Thanksgiving — Stories  of  Pilgrim 
children  such  as  Oceanus  Hopkins,  Peregrine  White,  Betty  Alden,  and  Rose 
Standish;  of  Myles  Standish;  of  Indians.  Christmas — The  story  of  the  shepherds 
as  they  saw  the  star  and  as  they  visited  the  Christ-child  in  the  manger.  Feb- 
ruary 22 — Washington's  boyhood,  with  his  rules  of  behavior. 

Grade  II,  often  united  with  grade  I.  If  not,  review  work  of  grade  I  and 
add  or  emphasize  the  points  of  resemblance  in  Minnesota  history.  For  exam- 
ple: October  12 — To  the  story  of  Columbus  as  a  discoverer  add  the  story  of  the 
Norsemen  and  relate  it  to  Minnesota's  "Kensington  Rune  Stone."  Thanks- 
giving— Show  how  similar  the  conditions  of  the  Minnesota  pioneers  were  to  those 
of  the  Pilgrims:  same  food,  clothing,  and  shelter  problems;  same  difficulties  with 
Indians.  December  25 — Add  the  story  of  the  wise  men,  and  how  they  followed 
the  star.  Add  January  17,  Franklin,  with  emphasis  on  his  boyhood.  February 
22 — Maxims  from  Washington's  copy-book  used  for  copies;  his  later  life,  includ- 
ing stories  of  Lafayette  and  Kosciusko  if  fitting  the  community.  Add  May  SO, 
Function  of  Memorial  day;  bravery  emphasized. 

Grade  III,  October  12 — Relation  of  Columbus  to  the  work  of  later  explorers, 
some  of  whom  (LaSalle,  Joliet,  Radisson,  Groseilliers,  etc.)  came  to  Minnesota. 
Thanksgiving — Compare  the  life  and  work  of  Winthrop  with  Sibley;  of  John 
Eliot  with  Hennepin  and  Marquette;  of  King  Philip  with  Wabasha,  Red  Wing, 
or  other  Indian  chiefs  in  Minnesota's  early  history;  of  the  first  white  children  of 
the  Plymouth  colony  with  the  first  white  children  of  Minnesota.  Add  December 
17,  Whitticr,  to  portray  New  England  life  after  the  early  pioneer  days  were  over, 
and  to  compare  the  scenes  in  "Snowbound"  with  similar  situations  in  early  Min- 


168  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

ncsota  history.  December  25 — The  flight  to  Egypt.  Herod.  Christ  as  a  boy. 
Early  Hebrew  history,  such  as  the  story  of  Joseph  or  of  David.  January  17 — 
Franklin's  inventions.  Add  February  12,  Lincoln,  with  emphasis  on  his  boy- 
hood, and  pioneer  conditions  in  Kentucky  noted  as  similar  to  those  in  Minnesota. 
Story  of  Minnesota's  Governor  Johnson,  because  he  was  like  Lincoln.  February 
22 — Washington  as  president.  Making  the  United  States  flag.  Compare  to 
Governor  Sibley,  of  Minnesota.  Sibley  House  at  Mendota.  The  Minnesota 
state  flag.  Add  Bird  and  Arbor  Day,  with  emphasis  on  the  need  of  conservation 
for  the  sake  of  Minnesota's  future.  May  80 — Barest  outline  of  Civil  War,  with 
emphasis  on  what  Minnesota's  sons  and  daughters  gave  for  the  Union. 

In  schools  of  several  grades  to  a  room,  some  of  these  days  should  occasionally 
be  omitted  and  July  Fourth,  Minnesota  Day,  Peace  Day,  and  Flag  Day  substi- 
tuted. 

In  the  second  and  third  grades  it  will  be  found  that  the  daily- 
life  of  primitive  peoples  appeals.  Although  the  child  is  in  the  midst 
of  a  complex  civilization,  he  has  no  appreciation  of  the  whole.  As 
he  studies  primitive  peoples  in  their  search  for  the  necessities  of 
life,  he  can  gradually  be  led  to  appreciate  and  to  interpret  present- 
day  activities.  In  principle,  the  life  of  Bodo  in  the  "Tree  Dwell- 
ers" is  much  like  his  own,  filled  with  the  spirit  of  progress  or  the 
desire  for  investigation,  discovery,  and  exploration.  Like  Sharp- 
tooth,  who  typifies  the  conservative  element  of  society,  the  child's 
mother  warns  him  of  danger  and  holds  him  back  from  rashness. 
After  a  time,  like  Bodo,  he  finds  a  companion  with  whom  to  co- 
operate, and  modern  "society,"  with  its  need  of  give-and-take, 
begins  for  him.  Although  the  child  cannot  analyze  the  thought, 
he  does  understand  that,  as  the  tree-dwellers  change  into  cave- 
men, individual  freedom  gives  place  to  the  welfare  of  the  social 
group.  He  sees  Firekeeper  making  the  home,  developing  worship, 
and  teaching  the  young.  He  sees  Strongarm,  as  leader,  caring  for 
all,  showing  forethought,  inventiveness,  and  patience  in  studying 
out  the  problem  of  fire-making.  He  sees  Sharpeyes  displaying 
bravery,  persistence,  and  love  of  others.  He  recognizes  the  need 
of  division  of  labor,  and  can  be  led  to  interpret  the  life  about  him 
more  intelligently. 

Closely  associated  with  this  study  of  typical  primitive  peoples, 
will  be  the  early  Indian  life  of  our  own  state,  the  home  of  "Hia- 
watha." This  study  of  beginnings  is  not  to  be  over-emphasized, 
but  should  be  used  only  to  help  children  realize  how  group-life 
grew  and  how  men  learned  better  and  ever  better  ways  of  doing 
things.  Present-day  problems  should  be  either  the  line  of  approach 
to  or  the  application  of  this  study. 

In  the  third  grade  special  effort  should  be  made  to  gather  to- 
gether all  incidental  teaching  of  "history,"  and  to  unify  the  courses 
in  citizenship,  industry,  and  science.*  Teuton  and  Norse  mythology, 
as  well  as  that  of  Greece  and  Rome,  should  be  drawn  upon  as  source 

*  See  plan  of  alternation  suRgestcd  under  third-grade  geography.  Problems  there  given  can 
with  very  slight  changes  be  suited  to  history  work. 


History. — Grades  I,  II,  and  III.  169 

material.  Mrs.  Carley's  description!  of  some  third-grade  work  in 
history  based  on  the  study  of  Chicago's  development,  and  accom- 
plished by  pupils  in  the  Francis  W.  Parker  school,  is  so  excellent  as 
to  warrant  the  quoting  of  large  parts.  Minnesota  teachers  will 
find  that  little  more  than  the  substitution  of  some  town  or  city  in 
Minnesota  for  "Chicago"  is  needed  to  make  the  outline  fit  local 
conditions.  The  study  is  especially  applicable  to  the  Twin  Cities, 
Duluth,  and  Winona,  although  of  course  no  teacher  would  use  all 
of  these  topics  in  any  one  year  with  a  single  class;  the  list  is  how- 
ever very  suggestive. 

"The  contrasts  between  the  lives  of  people  who  lived  here  fifty  to  a  hundred 
years  ago,  and  the  children's  own,  helps  them  to  appreciate  their  own  environ- 
ment and  comforts.  Chicago  is  so  young  that  there  are  people  still  living  who 
can  tell  personal  experiences  of  the  early  days,  and  these,  with  visits  to  historical 
spots  and  museums,  make  the  study  more  real  and  vivid.  The  purpose  is  not 
to  teach  events,  but  to  show  reasons  for  the  beginning  of  the  city,  its  connection 
with  the  rest  of  the  country — the  interdependence,  in  general,  between  the  city 
and  the  surrounding  country.  To  have  children  image  the  landscape,  not  the 
map,  many  excursions  to  type-areas  are  necessary.  This  also  enables  them  to 
think  of  conditions  around  Chicago  as  they  existed  long  ago.  It  is  essential  to 
make  a  study  of  some  of  the  organized  civic  activities  of  the  present  day,  to  em- 
phasize the  beginnings,  the  growth,  and  the  reasons  for  instituting  them. 

"The  children  write  their  own  histories  of  Chicago.  Each  child  has  reprints 
of  thirty  or  forty  pictures  which  the  teacher  has  collected  from  every  possible 
source  to  illustrate  this  work.  Covers  are  made  for  the  books,  and  they  are 
simply  and  artistically  bound.  The  motive  of  making  a  book  which  is  to  be 
both  complete  and  beautiful,  appeals  very  strongly  to  all  of  them.  The  topical 
outline  given  below  will  give  some  idea  of  the  contents  of  each  child's  book: 

How  Chicago  looked  a  hundred  years  ago. 

Stories  of  Indians — Indians'  dress;  Indian  homes — wigwam,  summer  home,  winter  home. 

Indian  village  along  creek  where  State  street  is  now.  Industries — Basketry,  pottery  making, 
weaving  rush  mats,  weaving  blankets,  cooking. 

How  Indians  gather  wild  rice.  Indian  games. 

Hunting  and  Fishing  Devices — Elk  hunting;  buffalo  hunting,  hunting  buffalo  with  decoys; 
antelope  hunting;  hunting  deer  with  decoys;  hunting  bears;  bear  dance,  snow-shoe  dance;  trapping 
animals;  fishing  with  soap-root;  fishing  with  bow  and  arrow;  spearing  fish;  weirs. 

Picture  writing.  Building  canoes. 

Building  Fort  Dearborn.      (Minnesota  has  Fort  Snelling.)     Plan  of  the  fort. 

Mr.  Kinzie  comes  to  Chicago.  (Every  Minnesota  town  contains  some  descendant  of  a  pio- 
neer whose  journey  west  was  full  of  incident  and  adventure.) 

The  Kinzie  mansion.     Fur  trading — stories  of  trappers.     Stories  of  French  voyageurs. 

How  Chicago  looked  in  1812 — Tecumseh;  Revolutionary  War;  War  of  1812;  first  Indian 
trouble;  massacre  of  Fort  Dearborn;  Black  Partridge. 

After  the  War  of  1S12.  Fort  Dearborn  rebuilt. 

Coming  of  settlers;  how  they  traveled;  traveling  with  ox-carts,  sledges,  prairie-schooners,  flat- 
boats,  pack-horses. 

Abraham  Lincoln  traveling  to  Illinois;  his  trip  on  a  flatboat  down  the  Mississippi  river. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Kinzie's  traveling  experiences.     How  Chicago  looked  in  1S31. 

Old-fashioned  fireplace;  cooking. 

River  water;  wells  and  sweeps;  selling  water  from  cart.  Water  system — log  pipes;  first  city 
water-works;  the  drainage  canal;  intersecting  sewers;  plan  for  north-shore  sewers. 

Street  problems — Lifting  Chicago  out  of  the  mud.     Playground  plan. 

t  In  the  Seventh  Year-Book  of  the  Superintendents'  and  Principals'  Association  of  Northern 
Illinois. 


170  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Grade  IV. 

When  pupils  have  reached  the  fourth  grade  they  have  ceased  to 
class  people  and  objects  together.  They  recognize  the  difference 
in  the  reactions  which  people  make  to  people,  and  those  which  peo- 
ple make  to  their  material  environment.  During  the  develop- 
ment of  this  social  consciousness,  while  yet  children  are  trying 
through  competitive  games  and  through  interchange  of  experiences, 
to  know  one  another,  they  grow  interested  in  adults,  the  "Olym- 
pians" who  can  do  "just  as  they  please,"  and  yet  who  do  not  seem 
to  take  advantage  of  their  privileges.  Children  can  not,  however, 
yet  grasp  complex  social  situations.  Their  attention  becomes  riv- 
eted at  any  one  time  on  just  one  individual  and  what  he  accom- 
plishes. Therefore  the  work  in  history  may  often  be  done  by  the 
proper  use  of  biographies,  selected  and  presented  so  as  to  portray 
the  age  in  which  the  character  lived,  disclosing  the  life  of  all  the 
people.  If  the  child's  imagination  is  cultivated  so  that  he  sees  the 
scenes,  so  that  the  setting  is  clear  and  the  action  plain;  if  much  en- 
riching detail  is  employed;  if  dramatization  is  used  to  strengthen 
the  child's  understanding,  to  check  the  rationality  of  facts  offered, 
and  to  help  him  feel  the  situations,  the  intermediate-grade  pupil 
will  "love  history."  Whenever  possible,  he  should  be  led  to  see 
how  the  individual  character  was  influenced  by  the  group  in  which 
he  lived  and  how  he  and  his  group  influence  our  life  today. 

The  range  of  stories  and  biographies  from  which  to  select  is  so 
broad  as  to  make  it  unnecessary  for  any  two  schools  to  do  exactly 
the  same  things,  although  a  few  are  later  suggested. 

Although  fourth-grade  pupils  are  still  unable  to  comprehend  the 
significance  of  the  sequence  of  national  development,  (outlined  on 
p.  166),  they  can  be  led  to  enter  into  the  life  of  those  earlier  tribes 
and  nations  which  grew  out  of  primitive  conditions  and  which 
bridged  the  gap  from  no  solidarity  in  group-life  to  our  own  modern 
and  complex  civilization.  This  study  should  be  preceded  by  the 
sort  of  review  that  will  best  emphasize  the  growth  of  tribal  life; 
hence,  a  review  of  primitive  life  in  which:  (1)  Each  man  lived  alone; 
(2)  the  child  had  very  early  to  fend  for  himself;  (3)  fire  was  discov- 
ered and  used;  (4)  language  developed;  (5)  family  life  developed; 
(6)  labor  was  divided;  and  (7)  a  larger  family  life  (or  group-life) 
evolved.     The  study  of  tribal  life  may  be  subdivided  as  follows: 

A.  Hunting  tribes,  including  fishing  and  warring  tribes.  For  stories,  use 
parts  of  "The  Brown  Baby,"  "Mancnko,"  and  "Agoonack,"  from  "Seven  Little 
Sisters"  and  "Each  and  All;"  "Robinson  Crusoe;"  "Docas;"  "Hiawatha"  (parts 
not  used  in  primary  grades);  and  other  Indian  boyhood  stories  such  as  the  East- 
man books  and  Cooper's  "The  Last  of  the  Mohicans." 


History. — Grade  V.  171 

B.  Shepherd  tribes — For  pictures  of  this  life  see  the  story  of  "Jeannette,"  in 
"Seven  Little  Sisters,"  and  "Each  and  All";  "Heide;"  "Robinson  Crusoe;"  the 
life  and  paintings  of  Millet;  the  biographies  of  Abraham,  Joseph,  Moses,  David> 
and  others  which  teachers  find  suited  to  their  needs. 

C.  Agricultural  tribes,  represented  well  by  some  of  our  American  Indians, 
where  the  women  tilled  the  soil;  gathered,  ground,  and  cooked  grains;  wove 
blankets;  made  baskets,  pottery,  etc.  See  "Docas";  "Hiawatha"  (and  Monda- 
min);  stories  of  Squanto's  teaching  the  Pilgrims  to  plant  maize;  and  the  life  of 
"The  Six  Nations."  As  Pilgrim  and  Virginia  life  are  studied,  children  recognize 
the  difficulties  of  an  agricultural  life  and  appreciate  the  setting  apart  a  day  of 
Thanksgiving  when  the  harvest  did  prove  bountiful.  Robinson  Crusoe's  troubles 
also  help  to  point  the  lessons  of  forethought,  thrift,  and  care.  From"  "Seven 
Little  Sisters,"  and  "Each  and  All,"  parts  of  the  stories  of  "Louise"  and  "Pense" 
can  be  utilized. 

Grade  V. 

As  the  child  grows  in  social  consciousness,  (see  grade  IV,)  learn- 
ing how  groups  have  met  or  do  meet  life's  changing  conditions,  and 
as  he  explores  and  invents  things  for  himself,  he  discovers  every- 
where not  only  the  necessity  but  the  benefit  of  cooperation.  "Team 
work"  takes  on  a  new  meaning,  and  he  feels,  more  or  less  definitely, 
that  still  closer  organization  of  group-life  will  benefit  mankind. 
He  is  therefore  ready  for  a  study  of  nations  and  of  what  each  has 
done  in  its  particular  part  of  the  world.  Facts  and  dates  become 
valuable  only  when  needed  in  studying  the  bigger  "problems"  of 
why  one  nation  has  risen  to  high  rank,  how  long  it  held  its  suprem- 
acy, and  why  it  ever  fell;  what  each  nation  has  contributed  to  the 
world's  progress  and  the  relationship  to  the  geography  of  the  earth 
of  the  westward  advance  of  frontier  life.  Four  typical  nations  are 
chosen.     (See  Outline,  p.  166.) 

The  study  of  China  may  be  omitted  if  a  teacher  so  desires.  It 
was  selected  as  the  type  of  an  Oriental  nation,  as  an  example  of  a 
non-progressive  group,  and  because  the  early  earthworks  and  the 
later  brickwork  of  the  "Chinese  Wall"  are  thought  by  some  histori- 
ans to  have  definitely  influenced  European  civilization,  turning 
back  upon  Europe  the  hordes  of  warring  and  nomadic  tribes  that 
once  harassed  China.  Again,  the  present  "Awakening  in  China" 
points  to  future  interrelations  which  the  next  generation  of  business- 
men can  better  interpret  if  they  learn  as  boys  somewhat  of  China's 
history. 

Since  Greece  and  Rome  have  had  so  marked  an  influence  on 
present-day  civilization,  no  further  defense  is  necessary  for  the 
study  of  topics  from  their  history.  Hurrying  over  a  thousand  years, 
just  noting  that  with  the  decline  of  Rome  her  extensive  empire 
changed  into  many  European  nations,  the  Course  of  Study  takes 
up  the  beginnings  of  European  life  in  America. 


172  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Note:  In  schools  where  pupils  in  great  majority  are  likely  to  leave  at  the 
end  of  the  fifth  year,  somewhat  less  of  Grecian  and  Roman  life,  and  probably 
nothing  of  Chinese  life,  should  be  given,  so  that  the  time  can  be  put  upon  a  more 
extended  study  of  the  United  States  than  is  here  outlined.  Children  who  may 
have  no  later  schooling  should  have  at  least  a  cursory  knowledge  of  their  own 
land  and  of  their  obligations  to  a  country  which  has  done  and  is  doing  so  much 
for  them. 

China. — For  the  work  on  China,  the  story  of  "Pense"  and  her 
brother  "Lin"  in  "Seven  Little  Sisters,"  and  "Each  and  All,"  sup- 
plemented by  reference  readings  upon  life  in  China,  and  by  the 
story  of  Marco  Polo's  visit  there,  will  provide  all  that  the  teacher 
needs. 

Greece. — Through  the  study  of  Greek  myths,  legends,  hero-tales, 
and  biographies,  the  real  life  of  the  Grecian  people  should  become 
known.  Children  and  teacher  must  make  themselves  a  part  of 
this  life,  working  and  playing  with  these  wonderful  yet  simple  peo- 
ple; with  them  accounting  for  the  mysteries  of  nature  in  fanciful 
tales  of  Zeus,  Pluto,  Ceres,  and  Aurora;  learning  to  emulate  the 
virtues  of  Theseus,  Perseus,  Jason,  Ulysses,  and  the  heroes  of  the 
Trojan  war;  seeing  what  the  world  has  gained  from  Grecian  law- 
givers, soldiers,  rulers,  and  teachers  of  art,  music,  and  philosophy. 
Through  a  study  of  the  larger  causes  of  Greece's  rise  and  decline, 
the  child  can  be  led  to  see  that  a  nation's  strength  depends  on  the 
high  moral  conduct  of  its  individual  members — citizens  with  civic 
consciences  as  sensitive  as  personal  consciences.  By  a  comparison 
of  Grecian  conditions  with  modern,  the  child  gets  a  basis  for  right 
civic  conduct  now  and  in  adulthood. 

Rome. — From  the  study  of  Rome,  pupils  should  get  the  feeling 
of  the  world's  great  indebtedness  to  that  city,  for  (1)  law  and  gov- 
ernment, (2)  practical  arts  such  as  were  seen  in  good  roads  and 
aqueducts,  (3)  the  spread  of  a  religion  which  was  mightier  than  the 
sword,  and  (4)  the  dissemination  of  culture  which  Rome  took  from 
Greece  and  tried  to  make  her  own.  The  teacher  should  study  the 
report  of  the  Committee  of  Eight,  pp.  26-34,  for  "problems"  and 
reference  material,  and  add  to  these  topics  that  of  the  Decline  of 
the  Roman  Empire  and  the  final  formation  of  the  nations  whose 
citizens,  because  of  love  of  adventure,  religious  liberty,  conquest, 
or  greed,  sought  the  New  World  and  started  our  own  United  States. 
As  this  forms  the  core  of  the  sixth-grade  work,  only  enough  time 
should  be  given  the  subject  in  fifth  to  pave  the  way  to  the  next  big 
topic,  E.  Dramatization  of  events  which  can  best  be  understood 
by  acting;  making  in  miniature  the  Acropolis  or  the  Forum,  for 
example;  and  picturing  events  which  the  imagination  can  paint; 
are  means  to  be  frequently  employed. 


History. — Grade  VI.  173 

From  p.  1G6,  E,  1,  a.  The  First  Europeans  in  America 

(1)  Came  by  fortunate  accidents — Leif  Ericson;  Columbus. 

(2)  Found  native  American  tribes  (review  Indian  life). 

(3)  The  period  of  discovery  and  exploration.  Every  normal  fifth-grade 
child  is  ambitious  to  learn  the  outside  world,  and  since  explorers  did 
what  each  child  longs  to  do,  the  lives  and  adventures  of  men  like  Balboa, 
the  Cabots,  Raleigh,  Champlain,  Marquette,  and  Joliet,  are  of  deep  in- 
terest. Equally  attractive  are  the  frontiersmen,  who  showed  such 
sterling  and  admirable  qualities  of  character,  while  they  maintained 
themselves  against  dangers  and  foes. 

(4)  The  period  of  settlement,  with  especial  emphasis  on  the  two  types  of 
colonial  government  exemplified  in   the   Massachusetts  and   Virginia 

•  colonies. 

Grade  VI. 

In  this  and  later  grades  the  work  outlined  by  the  Committee  of 
Eight,  and  employed  as  the  basal  organization  in  half  a  dozen  ex- 
cellent modern  texts,  can  be  used  with  little  modification — only 
such  as  is  necessary  to  suit  the  abilities  and  needs  of  pupils  in  a 
given  locality.  The  problems  therein  proposed  and  the  references 
given  are  the  best  possible  for  the  purpose. 

A  brief  review  of  the  large  points  made  in  each  of  the  earlier 
grades  gives  a  good  start  to  the  general  question  of  "the  brother- 
hood" of  all  Americans — sprung,  as  we  are,  from  those  nations 
which  rose  as  Rome  fell.  The  work  of  this  grade  begins  to  resemble 
real  historical  study.  More  than  before,  pupils  take  the  initiative 
in  proposing  "problems,"  in  proving  points  of  debate,  and  in  learn- 
ing to  think  from  effect  to  cause  before  offering  final  judgment  upon 
an  individual  or  a  nation.  As  has  been  frequently  said  elsewhere, 
the  method  of  study  should  be  varied  to  suit  the  needs  of  different 
localities,  but,  in  general,  the  "problem"  method,  illustrated  fully 
in  the  geography  course,  has  proved  efficacious  for  securing  growth 
in  power  (1)  to  see  a  point,  (2)  to  stick  to  a  topic,  (3)  to  recognize  a 
change  of  base,  and  (4)  to  see  the  relation  of  a  few  subordinate 
points  to  some  large  one. 

Besides  being  thus  valuable  as  a  means  of  selecting  and  grouping 
important  facts,  "problems"  become  excellent  means  of  conducting 
a  review,  for  a  new  problem  may  require  the  use  of  all  ground  cov- 
ered in  such  new  guise  as  to  make  it  thoroughly  alive.  The  careful 
building  of  an  early  English  castle  on  the  sandtable*  has  fixed  for- 
ever on  many  pupils'  minds  the  daily-life  details  of  the  several 
classes  of  people  who  worked  and  played  in  feudal  days. 

Children's  English  is  also  definitely  improved  through  their 
keeping  of  note-books  in  which  they  outline  reasons  why  certain 
groups  of  settlers  left  the  Fatherland  for  America;  in  which  they 
take  two  sides  to  a  debate  as  to  whether  these  people  showed  wis- 

*  Excellent  results  have  been  obtained  by  Miss  Etta  Howell,  Winona  Normal  School. 


174  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

dom  or  not  in  coming;  in  listing  the  traits  of  character  which  differ- 
ent nationalities  brought  to  America  and  which  we  should  attempt 
to  emulate;  in  showing  the  industrial,  commercial,  or  political  con- 
ditions existent  in  different  European  countries  at  some  given  date; 
in  picturing  the  conditions  under  which  each  group  lived  in  Europe 
before  it  came  to  America,  and  consequently  the  different  ideals 
they  brought  with  them.  Which  of  these  ideals  should  be  perpet- 
uated and  which  displaced  for  the  good  of  Americanism  is  a  topic 
well  to  expand  under  Ethics. 

Grade  VII. 

The  work  of  this  grade  is  the  more  careful  study  of  the  early 
history  of  the  United  States  from  its  European  beginnings  (learned 
in  the  sixth  grade)  to  its  birth  as*a  republic.  (See  topics  suggested 
by  the  Committee  of  Eight.)  Although  some  of  this  ground  may 
have  been  traveled  before,  it  will  be  so  differently  treated  and  will 
use  so  much  new  material  that  all  possibility  of  monotony  will  be 
precluded. 

At  the  adolescent  period,  when  boys,  especially,  are  beginning  to 
think  of  their  vocations  in  life,  pupils  develop  a  greater  interest  in 
local  situations,  in  current  events,  and  in  present  social  conditions. 
Possessed  by  a  desire  to  understand  things  as  they  are  (to  get  be- 
neath the  surface  of  life),  and  by  an  ambition  to  influence  the  future 
(to  make  things  what  they  should  be),  pupils  in  grades  seven  to 
nine  covet  and  deserve  to  be  given  such  impartial  study  of  facts 
leading  to  present  events  as  will  develop  judgment  of  values,  right 
attitude  towards  discrimination  and  verification  of  facts,  selection 
of  authorities,  and  prediction  of  effects  from  given  causes. 

While  the  seventh-grade  teacher  continues  to  further  the  aim  of 
the  sixth,  which  was  to  help  pupils  to  see  relationships  rather  than 
merely  to  memorize  facts  and  dates,  he  should  seek  to  stimulate 
increased  reasoning  power  and  sounder  judgment:  besides  reason- 
ing from  effect  to  cause,  some  thinking  from  cause  to  effect  should 
be  done  by  pupils,  as  they  solve  the  subordinate  problems  which 
naturally  arise  in  the  solution  of  the  large  ones  of  the  year.  Inci- 
dentally, as  it  is  needed  in  geography,  in  history  itself,  or  "in  read- 
ing, the  history-work  of  earlier  grades  must  be  recalled  and  kept 
reasonably  fresh  and  ready  for  use. 

In  the  study  of  "the  struggle  for  territory,"  one  seventh-grade  class*  organ- 
ized the  work,  around  problems  similar  to  the  following.  (1)  Prove  that  condi- 
tions were  favorable  for  adventure  and  exploration  during  the  fifteenth  century. 
(2)  Prove  that  Spain  had  a  right  to  territory  in  the  New  World.  (Later,  France 
and  England  were  substituted  for  Spain  in  this  question.)     (3)  Prove  that  the 

*  Taught  by  Miss  Anna  McGuane,  of  Seattle,  Washington. 


History. — Grade  VIII.  175 

colonists  who  came  to  Jamestown  were  not  well  fitted  to  make  settlement.  (Later, 
the  opposite  affirmation  was  to  be  proved  about  the  Massachusetts  colony.) 

(4)  Prove  that  the  Jamestown  colony  showed  a  slow,  steady  growrh.     (Another 
problem  was  to  prove  that  the  colonies  of  Massachusetts  showed  rapid  growth.) 

(5)  Show  why  the  Mississippi  Valley  was  disputed  territory. 

Problems  for  work  on  succeeding  topics  are  also  suggested:  (1)  What  caused 
the  gradual  estrangement  of  the  colonies  from  the  mother  countries?  (2)  Prove 
that  the  idea  of  union  was  gaining  ground.  (3)  Show  that  the  idea  of  self-gov- 
ernment developed  gradually.  (4)  Find  the  causes  for  the  growing  divergence 
of  England  and  her  colonies.  (5)  What  were  the  people's  problems  in  the  Revo- 
lutionary period?  (6)  What  were  the  problems  of  the  critical  period  at  the  close 
of  the  war?  (7)  Prove  that  we  still  owe  a  debt  to  the  men  who  framed  and 
signed  the  Constitution  and  who  put  the  government  into  operation.* 

Grade  VIII. 

As  indicated  in  the  outline  of  the  entire  Course,  (p.  166,)  the 
work  of  the  eighth  year  is  a  continuation  of  the  history  of  the 
United  States  from  the  time  of  Washington's  inauguration  to  the 
present.  At  least  one  third,  possibly  one  half,  of  the  year  should 
be  given  to  the  study  of  Minnesotaf  in  its  relation  to  the  whole 
United  States,  to  the  West,  and  especially  to  the  Northwest.f  As 
Professor  Alvord  said  a  year  ago,  "The  real  history  of  the  West  does 
not  belong  to  the  days  of  long  ago.  Much  more  important  for  us 
are  the  days  when  the  actual  settlers  carrying  their  farm  utensils 
on  flatboats  or  in  their  covered  wagons  were  seeking  the  fertile 
lands  of  the  West  to  make  homes  for  themselves  and  their  followers. 
History  is  not  confined  even  to  those  days  of  the  pioneer,  for  many 
a  historical  problem  of  utmost  importance  may  be  found  in  the 
civilization  that  is  almost  contemporary.  Here  in  Minnesota  is 
[also]  the  problem  of  the  "melting-pot."  [Our]  population  has  been 
drawn  from  many  states  in  Europe.  Men  with  foreign  language 
and  foreign  customs  have  settled  here  in  [our]  midst  and  are  gradu- 

*  For  still  other  problems  see  Teachers'  College  Record  Sept.,  1915.     f  Or,  any  state  desired. 

J  Teachers  should  watch  for  two  books  devoted  to  Minnesota,  one,  in  story  form  for  interme- 
diate grades,  by  Miss  Pollock;  the  other,  a  superior  treatment  for  eighth-  or  even  ninth-grade  pu- 
pils, by  Miss  Mary  Carney.  Briefly,  the  topics  Miss  Carney  suggests  are:  Geographical  condi- 
tions which  influence  Minnesota's  development;  Indian  life;  explorations;  period  of  permanent 
settlement;  governmental  changes  in  Minnesota;  Minnesota  as  a  state — prominent  men,  her  place 
in  the  Civil  War,  the  Sioux  trouble,  railroad  building,  agricultural  development,  flour  milling,  iron 
mining,  immigration,  education  of  the  youth.  While  Miss  Carney  was  working  out  her  course  in 
Hibbing,  teachers  at  Mankato  and  Winona  were  independently  bent  on  the  same  mission.  The 
result  of  a  half  year's  work  with  Winona  pupils  was  made  permanent  for  them  in  a  hand-made 
booklet,  named  "Minnesota."  The  writing  of  the  topics  became  a  part  of  the  English  work  and 
the  binding  of  the  book  a  part  of  the  industrial  work.  The  table  of  contents,  here  quoted,  will 
give  those  interested  an  idea  of  what  was  accomplished.  Pari  I. — Early  History  of  Minnesota — A. 
The  Dakota  or  Sioux  Indians:  (1)  Manner  of  living  and  occupations;  (2)  customs  and  ceremonies; 
(3)  mounds  and  builders;  (4)  names  derived  from  the  Indians.  B.  First  White  Men:  (1)  Names 
of  men;  places  visited;  fur  trading;  (2)  mission  of  white  men;  early  roads  and  mail  routes;  (3)  Fort 
Snelling.  Part  II. — Minnesota  as  a  Territory — A.  Organization  and  Development  of  Territory. 
B.  Conditions  of  Country  in  1849.  C.  Conditions  of  Country  in  1S50-1855.  D.  Transition  to 
Statehood.  Part  III. — Minnesota  as  a  Slate — A.  Progress  of  Minnesota  After  Becoming  a  State. 
B.  Outbreak  of  the  Indians.  C.  The  State  Capitol.  D.  State  Emblems.  E.  State  Institutions; 
(1)  Prison;  (2)  reformatory;  (3)  training-school;  (4)  soldiers'  home;  (5)  insane  asylums;  (6)  school 
for  defectives;  (7)  state  normal  schools  and  university.  F.  A.  Chronicle  of  Recent  Events;  "Minne- 
sota," by  Governor  Hammond;  the  state  song. 


176  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

ally  becoming  assimilated  with  the  American  people.  One  of  the 
most  interesting  problems  that  can  be  conceived  concerns  itself 
with  this  process  of  assimilation.  How  is  the  descendant  of  the 
Vikings  being  turned  into  an  American?"* 

Since  vocational  studies  are  the  unifying  topic  of  this  grade,  the 
emphasis  must  be  placed  upon  industrial  and  commercial  history. 
What  better  spur  to  ambition  can  be  made  than  (1)  to  help  a  boy 
or  girl  see  the  causes  and  effect  of  the  long  train  of  industrial  changes 
made  in  the  United  States  in  the  last  one  hundred  years?  (2)  To 
predict  the  future  of  America,  of  "our  state,"  and  of  "our  town"? 
And  then  (3)  to  recognize  that  youth  is  needed  to  further  the 
world's  progress — that  there  is  work  for  every  child  who  is  willing 
to  shoulder  his  share  of  it? 

As  he  sees  how  full  the  world  is  of  work  to  do  he  must  also  see 
how  impossible  it  is  for  any  one  to  do  more  than  a  small  part,  and 
hence  how  necessary  it  is  that  he  choose  his  life-work  wisely — 
whether  it  be  laying  railroad-ties  to  prevent  unnecessary  accidents, 
washing  milk-bottles  to  supply  sanitary  food  to  the  people,  or  heal- 
ing the  sick  of  soul  or  body. 

As  he  reviews  the  large  events  of  the  centuries,  noting  the  changes 
which  have  produced  our  own  wonderful  nation,  he  must  see  that 
cooperation,  of  which  division  of  labor  is  the  highest  form,  is  at  the 
root  of  it  all. 

An  analysis  of  division  of  labor  shows  that  unless  each  laborer 
keeps  in  touch  imaginatively  with  his  fellows,  he  soon  fails  to  ap- 
preciate what  others  are  doing  for  him,  and  when  he  loses  this 
sense  of  appreciation,  he  makes  his  fellow-man's  work  harder  be- 
cause of  lack  of  sympathy,  or  he  does  his  own  work  less  efficiently — 
not  realizing,  perhaps,  how  so  little  a  thing  as  failing  to  put  a  nut 
on  a  bolt  may  cause  a  city's  ruin,  provided  that  bolt  be  in  the  span 
of  a  bridge  against  which  a  great  flood  of  water  pours  from  a  break- 
ing dam.  One  must  not  let  the  sort  of  work  he  does  estrange  him 
from  his  fellows.  It  is  not  what  one  does,  but  how  he  does  it,  that 
counts;  only  to  have  done  his  task  the  best  he  can  justifies  any 
man's  pride  in  himself. 

Eighth-grade  boys  and  girls  must  go  out  into  the  world  with 
ideals  of  good  workmanship.  These  ideals  must  be  built  upon: 
(1)  Knowledge  of  how  things  are  done;  (2)  sympathy  for  the  dangers 
and  risks  that  others  run  for  the  world's  good;  and  (3)  willingness 
to  shoulder  a  share  of  the  common  load  while  still  doing  individual 
duties. 

*  Vol.  I.  No.  1.  "Minnesota  History  Bulletin." 


Civics.  177 

This  course  rounds  out  the  study  of  national  life,  and  should,  in 
either  history,  ethics,  or  civics,  lead  to  a  consideration  of  inter- 
nationalism (as  outlined  on  p.  166).  Reviews,  as  was  suggested  in 
the  sixth-grade  course,  should  be  by  large  topics  such  as  tariff  re- 
forms, secession  of  states,  states'  rights,  nullification  acts,  territorial 
expansion,  and  so  on,  each  topic  suggested  as  a  live  problem. 

A  school  play  such  as  "America,  the  Wonderland,"  or  a  play 
based  on  the  life  of  Lincoln  (including  "The  Perfect  Tribute"),  or 
upon  Antin's  "The  Promised  Land,"  would  make  a  fine  close  to 
the  year's  work. 

What  to  expect  at  the  end  of  the  eighth  grade. — Dr.  W.  W.  Charters 
says:  "In  answering  this  question  we  must  define  what  we  mean 
by  the  word  know.  One  may  have  a  great  mass  of  facts  and  ideals 
that  are  a  part  of  his  make-up,  but  which  he  cannot  organize  or 
state.  Or  he  may  have  facts  that  he  remembers  definitely.  Now 
looking  at  the  question  from  the  first  standpoint,  I  should  say  that 
the  pupil  should  read  as  widely  as  he  possibly  can — not  to  remem- 
ber all,  but  to  absorb.  The  actual  facts  to  be  remembered  need 
not  be  many.  In  dates,  if  he  remembers  1492,  1607  or  1621,  1776, 
1785,  1791,  1861,  besides  those  he  picks  up  naturally,  he  probably 
has  enough.  That  is,  he  has  enough  if  he  remembers  them.  Of 
facts  he  should  not  be  expected  to  remember  many;  the  significant 
facts  only  are  necessary,  and  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  he  know 
the  details.  In  the  daily  lessons,  of  course,  he  is  supposed  to  know 
many  details  that  he  would  not  be  expected  to  know  at  the  end  of 
the  year  or  a  year  later.  These  are  more  numerous,  but  the  num- 
ber important  enough  to  be  made  automatic  is  relatively  small. 
In  short,  in  history  study  the  pupils  should  read  widely  for  what 
they  can  absorb;  should  memorize  only  a  few  facts,  but  those  few 
should  be  remembered  well."* 

Children  need  such  a  knowledge  as  will  make  them  intelligent 
readers  of  newspapers  and  magazines.  That  is,  besides  knowing 
the  historical  facts  indicated,  they  must,  in  either  history  or  civics, 
learn  about  the  three  branches  of  government  and  what  phases  of 
social  life  each  controls  or  aids.  They  should  know  what  is  meant 
by  acts  being  "constitutional"  or  not,  and  should  know  where  to 
find  out  the  truth.     (See  p.  178.) 

B.— CIVICS. 

The  course  in  Civics  parallels  that  in  History,  and,  in  its  admin- 
istration, should  scarcely  be  separated  from  History,  except  possibly 
when  its  motivation  is  found  in  current  events  not  immediately 

*  In  "Teaching  the  Common  Branches." 


178  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

related  to  the  history-work  then  in  progress.  It  is  also  part  and 
parcel  of  the  course  in  Ethics,  and  relates  closely  to  the  courses  in 
Hygiene,  Industry,  and  Vocational  Guidance. 

The  study  of  Civics  means  the  study  of  all  things  which  make 
for  public  welfare — such  as  matters  of  property,  personal  and  pub- 
lic; health,  personal  and  civic;  education  of  the  youth;  and  laws  re- 
garding all  community  adjustments.  As  soon  as  the  child  is  old 
enough  to  do  so  in  even  the  smallest  degree,  he  must  be  helped  to 
see  that  the  group  can  attain  its  highest  efficiency  only  as  each  in- 
dividual does  his  share.  This  is  true  in  every  group,  whether  it 
be  small  or  great,  a  family  or  a  nation.  Even  the  selfish  person 
must  see  that  the  group's  ability  to  help  its  individual  members  is 
impaired  when  even  one  member  does  his  share  badly;  hence,  for 
selfish  reasons,  if  for  no  higher,  each  must  shoulder  his  own  re- 
sponsibilities. 

The  subject-matter  of  the  course  is  not  here  distributed  by 
grades,  since  some  topics  must  necessarily  appear  in  several  grades, 
and  since  other  topics  so  evidently  belong  to  certain  stages  of  devel- 
opment as  to  be  self  distributive.    (See  "Diagram"  for  suggestions.) 

Illustrations  of  how  Civics  may  be  closely  interwoven  with  History:  (1)  When 
pupils  are  studying  the  period  during  which  our  Constitution  was  adopted,  when 
they  are  entering  dramatically  into  the  debates  of  those  days,  they  should  turn 
to  the  Constitution  itself,  at  the  back  of  their  histories,  and  from  it  find  out  how 
the  president,  how  senators,  how  representatives,  are  elected;  what  qualifications 
are  necessary  in  candidates;  how  much  and  by  what  means  these  men  are  paid; 
what  branches  of  government  there  are;  and  so  on.  Such  study  makes  the  Con- 
stitution a  live  instrument,  not  something  that  is  mouldering  in  the  dust  of  over 
a  hundred  years. 

(2)  Jefferson's  administration  makes  further  study  of  the  Constitution  inter- 
esting, since  the  difficulty  about  Jefferson's  election  made  necessary  a  change  in 
the  Constitution.  This  is  one  good  time  to  fix  the  facts  concerning  the  election 
of  a  president.  Another  good  time  is  during  a  presidential-election  year,  when 
pupils  can  watch  the  procedure  from  January  to  November. 

(3)  The  method  of  admitting  states  to  the  union  is  well  studied  at  the  admis- 
sion of  Missouri  or  Texas,  or  in  connection  with  local  state  history. 

The  succeeding  outline  is  for  the  teacher  rather  than  for  pupils. 
OUTLINE  OF  THE  COURSE  IN  CIVICS. 

I.  Individual  life — no  civic  duties.     (When  man  lived  alone,  self-preservation 

was  his  only  guide  to  action.  He  could  kill  what  he  pleased,  eat  all  he 
wished,  and  discard  the  remainder  even  though  good.  He  felt  no  obliga- 
tion to  any  other  individual,  so  had  no  responsibility.  How  is  the  baby 
in  the  home,  today,  like  early  man  in  this  regard?) 

II.  Family  life. 

A.  The  father. 

1.  What  he  contributes  to  the  home — materially,  socially,  spiritually. 

2.  His  rights.         3.  His  privileges. 

4.  His  obligations  in  return  for  these  rights  and  privileges. 

B.  The  mother.     (Same  outline.) 


Civics. — Outline.  179 

C.  The  baby  or  very  little  child.     (Same  outline.) 

1.  He  probably  contributes  nothing  in  a  material  way,  but,  by  being 

sweet-natured,  sunny,  and  affectionate,  can  contribute  much  to 
the  happiness  of  the  home  and  to  each  member  of  the  family. 
Are  you  the  youngest  child?  What  can  you  do  to  make  others 
happy?  Is  there  a  baby  in  your  home?  How  can  you  help  to 
keep  it  happy  and  sweet?  How  will  baby's  sunniness  help 
mother?     Father?     Other  members  of  the  family? 

2.  He  has  the  right  to  eat,  sleep,  play,  grow,  and  learn. 

3.  He  is  protected  from  danger;  cared  for  when  ill;  is  loved  and  petted. 

4.  The  baby  can  feel  no  obligation;  he  takes  his  privileges  as  a  matter 

of  course,  and  expects  what  he  has  no  right  to  expect.  The  child 
of  four  or  older  gradually  realizes  that  in  return  for  these  rights 
and  privileges,  he  must  obey  his  parents  and  obey  cheerfully  and 
promptly.  He  must  look  out  for  his  safety  when  playing,  so 
that  his  parents  need  not  worry;  he  can  learn  to  wash  his  face 
and  hands,  brush  his  teeth  and  hair,  dress  himself,  and  keep  him- 
self neat  at  proper  times.  He  must  be  kind  to  his  pets,  as  his 
parents  are  to  him.  He  must  be  courteous  to  all  who  enter  the 
home. 

D.  Other  children  in  the  family.     (Same  outline.) 

With  increasing  years,  children  can  more  and  more  plainly  see  the 
need  of  cooperation  in  the  home  and  of  what  they  need  to  contribute. 
They  can  see  the  difference  between  rights  and  privileges,  so  as  not  to 
demand  the  latter.  To  the  obligations  named  under  C,  above,  will  be 
added  the  assumption  of  some  of  the  home  duties,  such  as  tidying  the 
living-room,  caring  for  baby,  or  running  errands  (at  mother's  conven- 
ience, rather  than  the  child's.) 

E.  The  oldest  children  in  the  home.     (Same  outline.) 

Contribute  to  it  new  ideas  and  fresh  interests,  gained  at  school,  per- 
haps. Often  contribute  material  comforts  through  their  labor.  More 
than  in  material  comforts,  however,  parents  rejoice  in  the  comradeship 
of  their  children,  and  in  watching  the  development  of  children's  char- 
acter as  they  apply  themselves  to  school  or  to  their  vocations.  What 
new  ideas  do  you  carry  home?  Do  you  see  little  ways  in  which  you 
could  make  mother's  work  easier?  Is  the  kitchen  designed  to  save 
mother  unnecessary  steps?  Does  she  need  a  stool  or  chair  for  occa- 
sional sitting?  Is  the  sink  too  low,  and  would  a  board  or  stool  on  which 
she  could  set  the  dish-pan  relieve  her?  Are  there  any  door-knobs  or 
hinges  loose  that  you  could  screw?  Or  any  screens  to  mend?  Any 
furniture  that  you  could  make  in  manual  training?  Any  comfort  that 
you  could  provide  father  or  grandmother  by  your  own  effort? 

F.  Grandparents  or  aunts  and  uncles  in  the  home.     (Same  outline.) 

Children  should  be  led  to  see  how  their  elders  worked  years  before, 
and  so  deserve  care  and  respect  for  past  effort  just  as  baby  deserves 
love  and  care  before  he  puts  forth  effort.  Without  preaching,  the 
teacher  can  help  pupils  to  see  how  much  the  general  home  atmosphere 
is  regulated  by  the  conduct  of  each  member  of  the  family,  and  espe- 
cially how  children  can  help  make  the  home  a  happy  one. 

In  the  study  of  primitive  life  one  sees  the  gradual  increase  of  group 
responsibilities  and  the  subordination  of  individuals  in  some  lines  for 
their  greater  advantage  in  others.  Through  the  sacrifice  of  certain 
personal  conveniences  the  individual  becomes  a  part  of  the  group,  re- 
ceiving (a)  protection,  (b)  comforts  which  individually  he  might  not 
afford  in  either  time,  money,  or  effort,  and  (c)  spiritual  uplift,  through 
interchange  of  ideas  and  opinions.  Each  individual  has  a  right  to  the 
pursuit  of  life, — that  is,  food,  shelter,  and  clothing, — and  to  the  pursuit 
of  happiness, — that  is,  the  realization  of  his  highest  ideals;  but  with  this 
right  goes  an  obligation  to  others  of  the  group.  He  must  not  destroy 
the  property  of  another  in  his  pursuit  of  either  life  or  happiness.  Prim- 
itive man  had  to  learn  the  difference  between  "mine"  and  "thine"  and 
then  to  respect  this  difference.  He  could  no  longer  waste  what  food  he 
did  not  wish,  but  had  to  cultivate  thrift  and  economy.  He  had  to  con- 
serve his  sources  of  food  supply,  and  learn  industries  which  helped  him 
Dreserve  food,  dress  skins,  and  protect  his  home. 


180  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Children  can  apply  two  primary  laws  of  group-life  (the  individual's 
right  for  self  and  the  individual's  obligation  to  others)  to  their  own 
activities.  For  example:  Why  not  play  ball  near  a  building?  Why 
not  talk  when  one  pleases  in  church?  Why  not  have  dinner  just  when 
one  is  hungry  instead  of  having  to  be  home  at  the  right  hour?  What 
gain  to  the  family?  What  gain  to  the  child?  Why  not  eat  fruit,  candy, 
nuts,  or  pickles,  lying  open  in  a  grocery?  Why  think  of  "safety  first" 
when  playing  on  the  street  or  going  to  and  from  school?  Why  "turn 
in"  all  found  articles? 

III.  School-life. 

A.  The  teacher. 

1.  Rights.         2.  Privileges.         3.  Obligations  and  duties. 

B.  The  pupils.     (Same  outline.) 

To  recognize  that  rights  always  carry  with  them  obligations,  and  that 
privileges  must  not  be  counted  as  rights,  is  a  long  step  on  the  road  to 
true  citizenship.  The  character  qualities  begun  in  the  home  need  to 
be  further  developed  in  school-life  where  children  can  be  helped  to  see 
their  duty  in  regard  to  yard,  building,  room,  desks,  books,  learning  and 
reciting  of  lessons,  and  in  obeying  necessary  rules  for  order  and  quiet. 
They  should  realize  the  values  of  an  education;  why  their  parents  and 
the  city  and  state  sacrifice  to  provide  this  for  children;  and  hence  their 
obligation  to  use  their  time  to  good  advantage.  They  may  see  the  re- 
lation of  school  laws  to  laws  of  games  which  they  play,  and  how  the 
"game"  is  spoiled  if  rules  are  not  followed.  "Team-work"  in  sports  is 
also  a  fine  approach  to  the  problem  of  group  cooperation.  (See  pp. 
295-299,  on  Discipline.) 

IV.  Town  or  City  life.     Again  the  topic  can  be  outlined  under  the  heads  of  the 

rights,  privileges,  and  obligations,  of  the  different  members  of  the  commu- 
nity— the  merchants,  the  doctors,  the  laborers,  the  policemen,  firemen, 
etc.,  but  especially  of  the  children.  What  privileges  are  accorded  children 
because  of  the  city's  organization?  What  rights  have  they?  What  must 
boys  and  girls  do  to  deserve  these  rights  and  privileges,  on  the  streets,  in 
parks,  in  the  city  library,  opera-house,  or  town  hall?  What  can  children 
do  to  help  the  city  in  the  way  of  clean  and  attractive  yards  (back  and  front) 
clean  walks,  and  clean  streets?  How  can  they  help  in  the  prevention  of 
unnecessary  disease?  What  are  the  advantages  of  quarantine  laws? 
How  carefully  should  these  be  obeyed?  Why  are  fires  so  dreaded?  What 
can  children  do  to  prevent  fires?  How  can  boys  and  girls  make  "safety 
first"  mean  something? 

With  the  older  children,  the  city's  government  may  be  studied.  What 
advantages  has  a  commission  form  of  government  over  a  council  or  other 
form?  What  are  the  duties  of  the  various  city  departments  and  officials? 
How  can  children  make  these  duties  less  difficult?  Who  in  the  town  are 
leaders  for  a  better — (town)?  Are  they  upheld  or  are  they  pooh-poohed? 
Must  a  leader  be  willing  to  take  criticism  and  perhaps  ridicule?  When 
the  reform  (good  roads,  good  lights,  pure  water,  or  riddance  of  the  "smoke 
nuisance,"  for  example)  is  accomplished,  how  do  the  citizens  feel  towards 
the  promoter? 

V.  State  and  National  life.     "The  gravest  danger  which  confronts  America  to- 

day is  American  individualism  and  political  indifference.  How  to  make 
our  people  nationally  self-conscious;  how  to  make  'America  First'  a  sig- 
nificant instead  of  a  meaningless  phrase;  how  to  induce  our  presidents  to 
see  beyond  their  parties,  our  congressmen  beyond  their  districts,  and  our 
citizens  beyond  their  own  individual  gain;  these  are  the  problems  to  which 
our  most  thoughtful  men  and  women  are  directing  their  attention."* 

Older  pupils  may  well  study  the  rights,  privileges,  duties,  and  obliga- 
tions, of  every  citizen  of  the  United  States,  towards: 

1.  General  law.  2.  Taxes. 

3.  Conservation  of  natural  resources — forests,  fish,  game,  water,  etc. 

4.  Government  or  state  inspection  of — 

(a)  Foods — meats,  milk,  eggs,  fruit,  manufactured  foods. 

(b)  Clothing — made  in  "sweat-shops"  under  unsanitary  conditions 

and  in  defiance  of  labor  laws. 


*  Walter  E.  Meyer,  Kansas  State  Normal  School. 


Civics. — Boys'  and  Girls'  Clubs.  181 

(c)  Fire  protection  in  factories  and  public  buildings. 

(d)  Railroads  and  other  corporations. 

(e)  Weights  and  measures. 

(f)  Banks  and  insurance  companies. 

5.  Public  education — 

(a)  Of  the  normal  child. 

(b)  Of  the  defective  child — physically,  morally,  or  mentally. 

6.  Government  projects  which  further  group  and  individual  progress. 

(a)   Fish  hatcheries.  (b)  Irrigation  projects. 

(c)  Canal  projects.  (d)   National  parks. 

(e)  Cure  for  tuberculosis  and  other  diseases. 

(f)  Copyrights  for  authors  of  books,  pictures,  and  music. 

(g)  Patents  for  inventors.  (h)  Military  and  naval  academies, 
(i)   Publications  at  Washington  to  help  every  class  of  workers  to 

do  their  work  better,  and  to  be  more  contented  and  happy 
in  the  doing  of  that  work. 

7.  The  problem  of  voting  for  good  measures — system  of  politics — refer- 

endum and  recall — methods  of  electing  state  officers — United 
States  officers. 

Current  events  of  civic  importance  should  be  made  either  the  approach 
to  certain  special  studies,  or  should  apply  studies  already  made.  Suf- 
ficient time  is  allowed  (see  p.  216)  under  one  or  another  subdivision  of 
"Citizenship"  to  permit  "current  events"  to  have  a  brief  time  either 
daily  or  weekly  in  every  grade. 

The  problem  method,  so  thoroughly  illustrated  under  geography,  is 
an  especially  good  one  to  employ  in  the  teaching  of  civics.  Three 
sample  problems  follow:  (1)  How  does  a  city  (Minneapolis,  St.  Paul, 
Duluth,  or  the  children's  own  town)  get  rid  of  the  snow  which  falls  in 
the  business  streets  throughout  the  winter?  The  answer  leads  to  a 
study  of  city  cost,  city  administration,  traffic  laws,  etc.  (2)  What  does 
it  cost  to  educate  me?  The  answer  to  this  involves  a  study  of  how 
school  taxes  are  levied,  collected,  and  distributed;  what  officers  are 
necessary;  etc.  (3)  How  does  it  feel  to  be  a  member  of  the  United 
States  governing  body?  This  problem  may  be  subdivided  into  how  it 
feels  to  be  elected  or  defeated;  to  be  responsible  to  one's  constituents 
when  voting  on  national  questions;  to  preside  over  a  deliberative  body; 
to  be  president.  These  questions  can  best  be  answered  by  pupils'  par- 
ticipating in  similar  activities;  that  is,  by  forming  a  club  or  society, 
electing  officers  who  preside  and  who  must  learn  the  rudiments  of  par- 
liamentary practice,  of  debate,  of  administration,  etc.* 

For  the  benefit  of  teachers  who  have  asked  for  help  in  organizing  and  con- 
ducting a  club,  the  following  suggestions  are  given: 

CONSTITUTION. 
Article  I. — Name. 
The  name  of  this  organization  shall  be 

Article  II. — Object. 

The  object  of  this  club  shall  be  to  improve  ourselves,  our  school,  our  homes,  and  our  com- 
munity. 

Article  III. — Membership. 

Any  boy  or  girl  in  this  district  between  the  ages  of  10  and  18  years  may  become  a  member  of 
this  club  by  signing  the  constitution  and  by  paying  the  required  membership  fee. 

Atricle  IV. — Officers,  and  Elections. 

Section  1.  The  officers  shall  consist  of  a  president,  vice-president,  secretary,  and  treasurer, 
who  shall  perform  the  usual  duties  of  such  officers. 

Sec.  2.  The  officers  shall  be  elected  by  ballot,  at  the  first  regular  meeting  of  each  school  term 
and  shall  hold  office  until  their  successors  have  been  elected  and  qualified. 


*  Excellent  work  along  this  line  has  been  done  by  several  of  Winona's  principals,  and  by  Miss 
Mabel  G.  Peirce,  of  Faribault. 


182  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Article  V. — Quorum. 
A  quorum  of  this  club  shall  consist  of  at  least  one-third  of  its  members. 

Article  VI. — Amendments. 
This  constitution  may  be  amended  at  any  regular  meeting,  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  members 
present.     By-laws  may  be  adopted  by  a  majority  vote,  at  any  meeting. 

BY-LAWS. 

Section  1.  The  club  dues  shall  be 

Section  2.  The  regular  meetings  shall  be  held  at  the  school,  the  last  Friday  of  each  month 
during  the  school  term,  unless  otherwise  voted. 

Section  3.  This  order  of  business  shall  be  followed  at  regular  club  meetings. 

Roll  call,  by  the  secretary. 

Reading  of  minutes  of  the  previous  meeting. 

Reports  of  committees. 

Unfinished  business. 

New  business. 

Program. 

Adjournment. 

The  above  constitution  is  in  part  quoted   from  one  made  by  Wilson,  in  '"Elements  of   Farm 

Practice."     If  a  more  elaborate  instrument  is  desired,  the  constitution  of  the  United  States  should 

be  used  as  a  model. 

Parliamentary  Practice. 

For  experienced  leaders  there  are  several  excellent  books  on  this  subject,  such  as  Gregg's 
parliamentary  Law,"  or  Robert's  "Rules  of  Order";  but,  for  boys  and  girls,  it  is  sufficient  that 
they  know  the  following  things: 

From  the  time  that  the  meeting  is  called  to  order  until  it  is  adjourned,  business  must  be  con- 
ducted in  a  formal  way. 

If  an  individual  wishes  to  speak,  he  rises,  and  says,  "Mister  [or  Madame,  if  a  girl]  President." 
The  President  then  says,  "Mr.  [Brown],"  which  is  the  formal  way  of  saying,  "You  have  permission 
to  speak."     The  speaker  then  talks,  makes  a  motion,  explains  a  point  being  misunderstood,  etc. 

If  several  persons  rise  and  say,  "Mr.  President,"  at  about  the  same  time,  the  president  should 

try  to  "recognize"  (that  is,  say  "Mister "  to)  the  one  who  rose  first.    As  soon  as  one  person 

is  "recognized,"  the  others  should  sit,  and,  without  any  demonstration  of  annoyance,  listen  to  the 
speaker  "on  the  floor,"  and  when  he  sits,  rise  again,  asking  for  permission  to  speak.  It  is  usual 
for  the  presiding  officer  to  permit  every  speaker  to  be  heard. 

If  some  action  is  desired,  a  "motion"  should  be  made.  A  speaker  rises,  says  "Mr.  President," 
is  "recognized,"  and  then  says:  "I  move  [or  "I  move  you,"  or  "I  make  a  motion"]  that  this  society 
change  its  weekly  day  of  meeting  from  Friday  to  Wednesday."  He  then  sits.  A  second  speaker 
rises,  says  "Mr.  President,"  is  "recognized,"  and  says:  "I  second  the  motion,"  or,  "I  support  the 
motion."  The  president  then  says,  "You  have  heard  the  motion.  Are  there  any  remarks?" 
Or,  so  that  there  may  be  no  error,  he  may  repeat  the  motion,  saying,  "It  has  been  moved  and 
seconded  that  the  meeting-day  of  this  society  be  changed  from  Friday  to  Wednesday.  Are  there 
any  remarks?" 

Speaker  after  speaker  may,  in  turn,  after  being  recognized,  make  remarks  upon  the  question. 
The  presiding  officer  tries  to  be  fair  to  all  and  to  watch  the  wishes  of  the  society.  When,  however, 
there  seems  no  further  need  of  debate  or  remarks,  he  says,  "Are  you  ready  for  the  question?"  In- 
dividuals who  so  desire  answer,  "Question!"  and  the  president  says,  "All  those  who  favor  the 
motion  say  'aye.'  "  He  notes  the  general  sentiment.  Then  he  says,  "All  those  who  are  opposed, 
say  'no.'  "  Again  he  notes  the  sentiment.  If  he  docs  not  feel  sure  which  side  is  the  stronger, 
he  calls  for  a  rising  vote,  asking  the  same  questions  as  above  except  the  words  "say  aye"  and 
"say  no,"  for  which  he  substitutes  "stand."  If  necessary  he  appoints  one  or  two  members  to 
count  those  standing  at  each  call. 

When  he  finally  knows  which  side  is  stronger,  he  says,  "The  motion  is  carried  [or  lost],"  and 
the  secretary  so  records  the  decision. 

While  it  is  the  president's  duty  to  meet  the  general  wishes  of  the  group,  individuals  cannot 
always  be  satisfied;  but  it  is  a  rule  of  the  game  that  each  member  of  the  society  shall  respectfully 
abide  by  the  president's  ruling  just  as  in  a  game  the  players  obey  the  umpire's  decision  without 
question. 

After  a  motion  to  adjourn  has  been  made,  seconded,  and  carried,  and  the  president  says, 
"This  meeting  stands  adjourned,"  informal  debate  on  questions  of  interest  may  go  on,  or  a  social 
hour  may  be  indulged  in;  that  is,  the  formality  must  be  observed  only  during  the  meeting  of  the 
club. 


Moral  Training,  and  Ethics.  183 

C— MORAL  TRAINING,  AND  ETHICS. 

Since  ethics  is  defined  as  a  science,  and  morality  as  an  art,  it  is 
plain  that  it  is  moral  training  that  should  be  the  main  object  of  the 
elementary  school.  Right  habits  of  thought,  feeling,  and  action, 
should  be  so  well  established  that  they  make  a  firm  foundation 
upon  which  the  individual  can,  later  in  life,  build  the  science  of 
ethics.  These  habits  may  be  initiated  by  precept,  by  illustration, 
and  by  example,  but  can  be  fixed  only  by  the  individual's  own 
conduct.  It  then  becomes  the  duty  of  every  teacher  to  see  that 
his  pupils  conduct  themselves  according  to  as  high  moral  standards 
as  they  are  capable  of  holding.  To  "know  better"  and  not  to  do 
better  weakens  one's  moral  fiber.  (See  p.  295,  ff.,  on  Discipline.) 
Dr.  Dewey  says,  in  his  "Ethical  Principles": 

"What  the  normal  child  continuously  needs  is  not  so  much  isolated  moral 
lessons  instilling  in  him  the  importance  of  truthfulness  and  honesty,  or  the  benefi- 
cent results  that  follow  from  some  particular  act  of  patriotism,  etc.  It  is  the 
formation  of  habits  of  social  imagination  and  conception.  I  mean  by  this  it  is 
necessary  that  the  child  should  be  forming  the  habit  of  interpreting  the  special 
incidents  that  occur  and  the  particular  situations  that  present  themselves  in 
terms  of  the  whole  social  life.  The  evils  of  the  present  industrial  and  political 
situation,  on  the  ethical  side,  are  not  due  so  much  to  actual  perverseness  on  the 
part  of  individuals  concerned,  nor  to  mere  ignorance  of  what  constitutes  the  or- 
dinary virtues  (such  as  honesty,  industry,  purity,  etc.),  as  to  inability  to  appre- 
ciate the  social  environment  in  which  we  live." 

If  each  individual's  highest  self-realization  is  the  goal  of  instruc- 
tion, there  must  be,  on  the  teacher's  part,  conscious  effort  directed 
toward  the  building  up  of  character  in  pupils,  the  broadening  of 
personality,  and  the  laying  of  a  philosophical  foundation.  Each 
person  must  be  helped  to  get  the  deepest  possible  meanings  out  of 
life,  to  joy  in  the  actual  doing  of  his  work  as  well  as  in  the  fruits  of 
that  labor,  and  to  use  leisure  properly  for  physical,  mental,  or  spir- 
itual re-creation.  One  must  learn  from  experience  to  appreciate 
service  in  whatever  form  or  degree  it  is  rendered,  learn  how  to  ac- 
cept as  well  as  to  give  favors,  and  grow  to  realize  that  faith,  in  self, 
in  one's  fellows,  and  in  the  Absolute,  is  the  rock  foundation  of  a 
perfect  life.  An  individual's  spiritual  growth  is  so  largely  the  re- 
sult of  all  the  influences  which  go  on  in  his  life  that  parents  and 
teachers  need  to  know  the  stages  of  development  in  moral  attitude, 
and  what  subject-matter  and  methods  will  best  satisfy  any  special 
need  at  a  given  age,  as  much  as  they  need  to  know  the  same  things 
about  reading  or  arithmetic. 

In  1908,  the  National  Education  Association  felt  strongly 
enough  upon  the  subject  to  warrant  a  "Declaration  of  Principles 
and  Aims,"  in  which  it  says: 


184  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

"The  National  Education  Association  wishes  to  record  its  approval  of  the 
increasing  appreciation  among  educators  of  the  fact  that  the  building  of  charac- 
ter is  the  real  aim  of  the  schools  and  the  ultimate  reason  for  the  expenditure  of 
millions  for  their  maintenance.  There  are  in  the  minds  of  the  children  and 
youth  of  today  a  tendency  toward  a  disregard  for  constituted  authority,  a  lack 
of  respect  for  age  and  superior  wisdom,  a  weak  appreciation  of  the  demands  of 
duty,  a  disposition  to  follow  pleasure  and  interest  rather  than  obligation  and  or- 
der. This  condition  demands  the  earliest  thought  and  action  of  our  leaders  of 
opinion  and  places  important  obligations  upon  school-boards,  superintendents, 
and  teachers." 

"We  earnestly  recommend  to  boards  of  education,  principals,  and  teachers, 
the  continuous  training  of  pupils  in  morals,  and  in  business  and  professional 
ethics,  to  the  end  that  the  coming  generation  of  men  of  affairs  may  have  a  well- 
developed  abhorrence  of  unfair  dealing  and  discrimination.  The  daily  exempli- 
fication in  the  routine  life  of  the  school  of  the  advantage  of  honest  and  truthful 
methods,  are  commended  to  the  especial  attention  of  teachers  as  a  partial  means 
to  this  end." 

Power  to  do  right  comes  only  through  the  habit  of  right  acting, 
and  an  education  which  does  not  give  such  power  to  the  youth  of 
the  race  is  failing  of  its  mission — is  building  on  sand. 

Methods  used  in  teaching  this  subject,  though  varied,  may  be 
classified  under  two  main  heads;  namely,  direct  and  indirect  meth- 
ods. Space  forbids  any  elaboration  of  the  topic,  but  at  least  the 
relationship  between  methods  can  be  seen  by  the  following  outline: 

METHODS  IN  MORAL  TRAINING  AND  IN  ETHICS. 

I.  Direct  method. 

A.  Children's  conduct. 

1.  At  home.         2.  On  the  street  or  playground. 
3.  In  the  schoolroom —  a.  During  recitation. 

b.  During  passing  of  classes.         c.  During  study-periods. 

B.  Club  or  society  work. 

1.  Forming  the  club. 

2.  Getting  it  into  working  order. 

a.  Making  a  constitution.         b.  Electing  officers. 

3.  Parliamentary  rules  practiced  in  the  conduct  of  the  club's  business. 

C.  Games  and  sports. 

1.  Meaning  of  fairness.  2.  Qualities  of  a  leader.  3.  Team-work  in  sports. 

D.  Excursions  in  geography,  nature-study,  industry,  etc. 

1.  Courtesy  to  one  another  on  the  trip. 

2.  Courtesy  to  the  farmer,  merchant,  or  manufacturer,  who  is  host  to 

the  class. 

3.  Thoughtfulness  about  plants,  birds,  etc. — not  to  destroy  ruthlessly. 

4.  Class  discussion  of  conditions  noted  in  a  visit  to  some  sanitary  gro- 

cery, or,  perhaps,  dairy. 

Note:  Teachers  would  better  teach  these  ethical  lessons  through  positive  rather  than  negative 
suggestion,  hence  should  visit  only  such  places  as  can,  in  discussion,  be  favorably  criticized.  For 
this  there  are  many  reasons — some  psychological,  some  ethical. 

E.  Cooperative  government  in  the  schoolroom. 

1.  Part  pupils  can  take.         2.  Relation  to  advisers. 

3.  Right  of  pupils  to  take  to  the  teacher  problems  in  ethics  hard  to 
solve  or  to  harmonize  with  popular  thought;  for  example,  "giv- 
ing evidence"  as  related  to  "tattling";  problems  in  politics  heard 
at  home  or  read  in  the  papers.  (Needless  to  say,  the  teacher 
must  be  broad,  and  especially  tactful.) 


Moral  Training,  and  Ethics. — Grades  I,  II,  and  III.     185 

4.  Pupils  recognize  need  of  reminders,  and  so  do  as  the  Perth  Amboy, 
New  Jersey,  pupils  did:  print  little  cards  or  leaflets  containing 
what  they  wish  to  stand  for.* 
F.  By  conscious  attention  to  the  conduct  of  parents,  teachers,  etc. 
II.  Indirect  method.f 

A.  Music — Classic  music  and  what  it  means.     Music  used  to  arouse  finer 

emotions. 

B.  Pictures. 

1.  Famous  pictures  illustrating  characteristics  desired.    Little  comment. 

2.  Many  pictures  from  modern  daily  life,  such  as  Rev.  Milton  Fairchild 

has  secured  for  his  lectures. 

C.  Literature. 

1.  Fairy    tales,    for    younger    pupils,    demanding    ethical    judgments. 

(Charles  McMurry.) 

2.  Hero  tales,  for  intermediate-grade  pupils. 

a.  Many,  without  comment  (as  Frederic  James  Gould  suggests). 

b.  Few,  with  discussion  of  the  ethical  problems  involved.     (Dr. 

Felix   Adler  and   Dr.  John   Lovejoy  Elliott  advocate   this 
plan.)      (See  also  "Cuore,"  by  de  Amici.) 

c.  Precept — as  in  the  case  of  Washington's  "Rules  of  Behavior." 

3.  Fun — wholesome  humor  cultivated.     (See  pp.  26,  51,  52,  for  exam- 

ple.) 

4.  Poetry  and   fiction   for  older  pupils — "The   Merchant  of  Venice," 

"Julius  Caesar,"  "Ivanhoe,"  "Jean  Valjean,"  etc.,  in  the  read- 
ing or  discussion  of  which  children  must  pass  moral  judgments. 

D.  History,  civics,  industry,  physical  education,  etc. 

Each  teacher  must  select  the  method  he  can  use  most  effectively 
with  each  new  moral  situation. 

Grades  I,  II,  III.J 

Through  a  study  of  the  family  and  the  home  community,  the 
child  recognizes  certain  responsibilities  which  he  must  meet:  help- 
fulness in  the  home,  cleanliness,  obedience,  truthfulness,  and  care 
of  property,  for  example. 

Even  third-grade  pupils  may  learn  that  they  have  obligations: 

(1)  To  themselves:  (a)  To  keep  well  and  hence  to  keep  teeth, 
hands,  face,  clothing,  handkerchiefs,  pencils,  and  books  clean, 
(b)  To  have  fun,  but  to  think  of  "safety-first."  (c)  To  keep  eyes 
and  ears  open  so  as  to  learn  all  that  is  possible  and  not  be  a  "stupid." 

(2)  To  their  parents  and  companions:  (a)  Children  may  help 
their  parents  by  taking  care  of  themselves,  by  being  prompt  and 
obedient,  by  faithfully  performing  helpful  services,  and  by  being 
good-natured,  (b)  They  can  help  their  playmates  by  sharing 
pleasures  with  them,  by  participating  in  games  in  any  needed  ca- 
pacity— not  always  wanting  to  be  the  leader, — and  by  showing 

*  A  few  statements  are  quoted  from  the  New  Jersey  Educational  Bulletin: 

1.  To  be  polite  is  to  have  a  kind  regard  for  the  feelings  and  rights  of  others. 

2.  Be  as  polite  to  your  parents,  brothers,  sisters,  and  schoolmates,  as  you  are  to  strangers. 

3.  Look  people  fairly  in  the  eyes  when  you  speak  to  them  or  they  speak  to  you. 

4.  Do  not  bluntly  contradict  anyone. 

5.  It  is  not  discourteous  to  refuse  to  do  wrong. 

6.  Be  courteous  enough  to  give  others  at  least  half  of  the  way  when  meeting  them  on  the  streets. 

t  Miss  Alice  M.  Paine,  Ethical  Culture  School,  gave  valuable  help  here  (and  elsewhere). 
t  Several  very  excellent  books  containing  graded  courses  in  ethics  are  now  available  for  the 
teacher.     See  page  301. 


186  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

those  who  need  help  how  to  do  some  bit  of  work,  (c)  They  should 
serve  others  by  being  thoughtful,  kind,  and  courteous — running  on 
errands  for  neighbors;  saying  "Thank  you,"  "Excuse  me,"  and  "If 
you  please,"  at  proper  times,  and  by  avoiding  all  rudeness  to 
strangers,  such  as  staring,  laughing,  or  calling  out. 

(3)  To  the  public  or  community.  Children  should  be  made 
from  the  first  to  feel  that  public  property  belongs  to  all  rather  than 
to  no  one,  and  hence  should  be  preserved  by  all,  not  abused.  The 
town  can  be  improved  by  children's  care  of  their  own  yards,  by 
thoughtfulness  in  not  throwing  candy-bags,  papers,  boxes,  fruit- 
peelings,  or  broken  playthings,  about  the  streets  or  on  other  peo- 
ple's premises.  Children  can  avoid  destroying  trees,  shrubbery,  or 
flowers,  in  public  parks,  and  can  instead  plant  these,  and  help  to 
keep  the  parks  tidy  and  attractive.  Many  other  lines  of  commu- 
nity effort  will  suggest  themselves  to  teachers  in  different  localities. 

Grade  IV. 

As  pupils  in  this  grade  study  the  history  of  tribal  life  and  of 
tribal  leaders,  the  lesson  of  effort  in  behalf  of  others,  or  the  good  of 
each  and  of  all,  will  be  inculcated.  Stories  of  Hebrew,  of  Viking, 
and  of  American  Indian  life,  of  our  Colonial  forefathers,  Robinson 
Crusoe,  and  the  Pioneers  of  Minnesota,  make  good  studies.  Also, 
a  study  of  the  historical  development  of  various  industries,  and  of 
inventions  with  their  inventors,  opens  the  eyes  of  children  to  the 
heroism  of  right  daily  and  hourly  living.  Effort  should  be  ex- 
pended in  helping  to  make  the  children's  conduct  show  growth  in 
truthfulness,  generosity  of  spirit,  bravery,  fortitude,  ingenuity,  in- 
dustry, kindness  to  animals  or  to  children  less  strong  than  them- 
selves, sympathy,  patience,  self-control;  in  courtesy  to  strangers 
and  to  the  aged;  and  in  general  good  manners.  All  these  qualities 
of  character  are  displayed  by  the  heroes  of  the  stories  suggested. 

Home  duties  offer  further  opportunities  for  the  practice  of  these 
several  virtues. 

Grade  V. 

The  work  in  history  makes  fifth-grade  pupils  feel  their  debt  to 
past  generations,  and  in  particular  to  local  pioneers.  Civics  points 
out  some  of  the  complex  situations  in  life.  Ethics  must,  therefore, 
point  the  need  of  courage,  perseverance,  thrift,  unselfishness,  loy- 
alty, integrity,  self-reliance,  self-respect,  fidelity  to  a  trust,  and 
patriotism. 

As  soon  as  children  have  a  fair  background  of  experience,  and 
recognize  that  in  their  own  environment  people  set  up  different 
standards  of  conduct  for  different  ages  and  different  abilities,  they 


Moral  Training,  and  Ethics. — Grade  VI.  187 

begin  to  set  up  standards  of  their  own.  At  almost  this  same  time, 
daily  life  seems  to  conflict  with  all  efforts  at  heroism.  The  child 
feels  chained  to  earth,  and  needs  to  learn  how  great  heroes  of  his- 
tory looked,  and  felt,  as  well  as  acted,  as  they  went  about  their  or- 
dinary daily  duties. 

Opportunities  to  inculcate  virtues  and  to  develop  a  righteous 
hatred  of  weakness  of  character  are  numerous  in  the  study  of  the 
lives  of  the  leaders  as  well  as  of  the  humbler  peoples  in  the  nations. 
To  see  a  nation  rise  because  its  citizens  were  temperate,  frugal, 
just,  honest,  brave,  and  loyal;  to  see  a  nation  remain  intact  for  cen- 
turies, increasing  its  territory  and  governing  wisely  because  of 
good  laws,  industry,  and  the  spread  of  knowledge  and  loyalty;  to 
see  a  nation  fall  as  soon  as  its  people  became  indolent,  seeking  indi- 
vidual advantage  regardless  of  the  group's  good;  are  burning  exam- 
ples of  what  to  do  and  what  not  to  do. 

Grade  VI. 

Legendary  stories  of  the  Niebelungen,  and  of  King  Arthur  and 
his  knights,  besides  being  both  history  and  literature  material,  are 
excellent  teachers  of  ethics.  The  situations  are  simple,  the  units 
relatively  small,  and  the  punishment  or  reward  swift  and  certain, 
hence  both  deed  and  result  are  sure  to  be  remembered.  For  ex- 
ample, Brunhilde's  good  intention  did  not  mitigate  her  punishment 
for  disobedience;  Gareth's  reward  for  bravery,  as  he  overcame  the 
three  successive  Knights  of  the  Plains,  and  for  self-control,  in  the 
face  of  Lynette's  ridicule  of  him,  would  encourage  any  boy  to  cul- 
tivate like  adherence  to  duty  in  spite  of  hardships,  mistakes,  and 
misrepresentations. 

The  stories  of  the  crusades,  and  of  the  English  people's  winning 
of  their  inalienable  rights  as  men,  are  lessons  in  the  power  of  an 
ideal  which  children  can  never  forget,  if  these  are  first  rightly  pre- 
sented. It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  teacher  should  do  no  moral- 
izing, but  should  so  propose  the  "problems"  as  to  let  the  solutions 
speak  for  themselves. 

The  recognition  of  what  each  nation  contributed  to  American 
ideals  cannot  fail  to  make  for  broader  sympathy,  better  coopera- 
tion, and  greater  unity  of  purpose.     (See  p.  172.) 

The  movement  at  present  being  instituted  in  many  cities  and 
states  to  make  present-day  immigrants  feel  at  home  in  the  land  of 
their  choice  is  worthy  the  attention  of  every  intermediate-  or 
grammar-grade  pupil  in  the  state.  Current  events,  as  of  the 
Great  War,  connect  readily  with  this  work  and  teach  American 
boys  and  girls  something  of  the  real  meaning  of  courage,  heroism, 


188  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

economy,  thrift,  and  cheerfulness,  in  the  face  of  sorrow,  hunger, 
and  suffering. 

Grade  VII. 

As  before,  history,  civics,  industry,  and  English,  open  the  way 
to  lessons  in  morals  and  ethics.     The  keynote  is  cooperation. 

History  shows  how  the  early  colonists  had  to  unite  against  com- 
mon dangers  and  hardships,  and  how  they  developed  governments 
and  necessary  laws,  as  well  as  obedience  to  these  laws.  Individual 
sacrifices  for  the  common  good,  justice,  faith  in  one  another,  loy- 
alty, and  patriotism,  were  virtues  which  we  have  inherited  from 
our  early  ancestors  and  which  we  must  in  honor  perpetuate. 

A  study  of  home  life  shows  the  necessity  of  cooperation  in  the 
home,  how  parents  need  and  covet  the  comradeship  of  their  children, 
and  what  qualities  of  character  seventh-grade  pupils  can  culti- 
vate; namely,  control  of  temper,  being  fair  to  companions  and 
courteous  to  elders,  showing  joy  in  life,  hopefulness,  ambition,  and 
attention  to  duty. 

Grade  VIII. 

Here  the  correlation  between  citizenship,  science,  industry,  com- 
position, reading,  and  arithmetic,  is  so  close  as  to  make  the  listing 
of'  ethical  problems  almost  unnecessary.  Only  that  the  teacher 
may  easily  recall  them  are  they  so  listed. 

1.  Recognition  of  the  sort  of  nation  in  which  we  live — one  built 
on  the  ideal  of  individual  freedom — the  "melting-pot"  of  so  many 
nationalities  as  to  be  in  danger  of  disintegration  unless  American 
citizens  keep  ever  before  them  the  principle  that  individual  free- 
dom is  best  realized  through  socialization,  even  as  highest  nationality 
depends  upon  the  strength  of  individual  citizens. 

2.  That  individuals  get  most  benefit  from  a  group  in  whose  af- 
fairs they  take  active  part,  hence  the  duty  of  voting  intelligently, 
of  helping  to  cure  "graft,"  and  to  solve  tariff  or  capital-and-labor 
problems. 

3.  To  learn  how  to  take  defeat.     (See  page  181.) 

4.  To  know  how  to  act  when  representing  others.  (See  third 
problem  under  eighth-grade  Civics,  p.  181.) 

5.  To  cultivate  the  qualities  of  determination,  ambition,  imagi- 
nation, consecration  to  duty,  heroism,  and  strength  of  character. 

6.  The  need  of  choosing  a  life  work  because  of  the  impossibility, 
under  present  complex  conditions,  of  doing  all  that  one  sees  to  do. 
(Related  to  vocational  guidance.) 

7.  The  need  of  understanding  others'  work,  of  sympathizing 
with  all  who  divide  among  themselves  the  world's  labor,  and  of 
acting  for  the  good  of  all. 


Moral  Training,  and  Ethics. — Character-Chart.       189 

8.  The  need  of  seeing  that  it  isn't  what  we  do  but  how  we  do  it 
that  gives  us  the  right  to  a  feeling  of  pride. 

9.  The  application  to  our  local  community  of  the  movement  in- 
stituted by  Detroit  and  other  cities  to  make  the  alien,  so  far  from 
the  land  of  his  birth,  feel  at  home  in  the  land  of  his  choice. 

The  civic  pride,  the  ethical  judgments,  and  the  moral  growth, 
that  will  come  to  eighth-grade  pupils  from  their  attempts  to  make 
every  foreigner  in  town  love  the  city,  state,  and  nation,  will  be  well 
worth  the  time  it  takes  any  teacher  to  learn  what  his  pupils  can 
do  and  to  be  the  power  behind  the  scenes  to  create  the  right  idea 
of  what  it  really  means  to  be  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  today 
instead  of  a  tree-dweller  several  thousand  years  ago. 

10.  The  need  of  boys  and  girls  of  this  age  to  be  just  boys  and 
girls,  not  little  adults;  girls  to  dress  sensibly,  avoiding  tight  cloth- 
ing, high-heeled  shoes,  low-necked  dresses,  and  the  use  of  cosmetics 
at  school;  boys  to  refrain  from  smoking,  swearing,  idling,  and  all 
habits  which  would  cause  their  mothers  shame  or  heartache. 

The  appended  quotation  from  The  School  Review  for  February, 
1916,  speaks  for  itself. 

School  Character-Chart. 

Mr.  Milton  Fairchild,  of  Washington,  D.  C,  chairman  of  the  Executive 
Committee  of  the  National  Institution  for  Moral  Instruction  of  Children  and 
Youth,  presents  to  school-men  a  school  character-chart,  now  in  the  process  of 
its  third  revision. 

Washington,  D.  C,  December  17,  1915 — School  Character-Chart — It  is  believed  that  schools 
have  produced  about  as  good  results  as  are  possible  from  a  curriculum  devoted  almost  exclusively 
to  intellectual  education.  If  more  attention  to  character  education  should  be  given,  and  a  better 
basis  in  character  thus  gotten  for  intellectual  development,  an  improvement  in  the  product  of 
American  education  could  be  secured  which  would  be  much  appreciated  by  parents  and  the  gen- 
eral public,  and  a  benefit  to  the  nation. 

The  following  statement  of  the  character  which  should  be  the  result  of  education  has  been 
compiled  from  advice  received  from  many  thoughtful  people  in  various  walks  of  life,  and  is  re- 
spectfully submitted  for  further  study  and  criticism  by  those  interested.  Modern  life  is  compli- 
cated beyond  the  possibility  of  understanding  save  through  collaboration  by  many  individuals 
who  combine  their  experiences  and  observations  into  a  broad  basis  for  conclusions.  On  the  level 
of  many  minds  there  is  some  degree  of  certitude  regarding  the  wisdom  of  human  experience. 

Character  is  divided  into  six  phases:  (1)  Intellectual,  (2)  working,  (3)  personal,  (4)  social,  (5) 
emotional,  (6)  physical.  An  estimate  in  detail  of  a  pupil's  character  can  be  made  by  grading  each 
item  thus:  "Earnest,  7;  trifling,  3  (or  5  and  5,  or  2  and  8,  according  to  observation).  The  totals 
under  each  division  can  be  made  up,  and  the  general  total.  A  detailed  knowledge  of  the  strength 
and  weakness  in  character  of  any  pupil  can  be  attained,  and  used  as  a  basis  for  planning  his  or  her 
character  education.  The  effectiveness  of  the  general  character  education  given  in  a  school  can  be 
estimated  by  a  study  of  the  character  development  of  the  pupils  in  the  older  classes: 

Intellectual  Character,  needed  for  wise  thinking. 

Sincere  and  open-minded,  not  diverted  by  per-  Earnest,  not  trifling. 

sonal  interests.  Discerning,  not  superficial. 

Inventive  and  constructive,  not  lacking  initiative.  Alert,  not  indolent. 

Rational  and  judicious,  not  over-emotional,  hys-  Useful,  not  merely  interesting. 

terical,  nor  melancholy.  Accurate,  not  indefinite. 

Working  Character,  needed  for  doing  useful  work. 

Purposeful,  not  led  merely  by  likes  and  dislikes.  Teachable,  not  stubborn. 

Attentive,  not  heedless.  Ambitious,  not  self-satisfied. 

Persistent,  not  vacillating.  Energetic,  not  lazy  and  dilatory. 

Decisive,  not  procrastinating.  Progressive,  not  opposed  to  change. 

Adaptable,  not  slow  to  fit  into  new  surroundings.  Thrifty,  not  wasteful. 

Developed  executive  ability,  not  haphazard.  Artistic,  not  slovenly. 


190  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Personal  Character,  needed  for  doing  right  by  one's  self. 

Thoughtful,  not  merely  impulsive.  Conscientious,  not  lawless. 

Independent,  not  suggestible.  Self-controlled,  not  weak. 

Self-respecting,  not  dissipated.  Refined,  not  coarse. 

Influenced  by  high  ideals,  not  content  with  low  standards. 

Social  Character,  needed  for  doing  right  by  others. 

Honest,  not  thieving  nor  disposed  to  cheat.  Genuine,  not  affected. 

Truthful,  not  given  to  lying  and  deceiving.  Honorable,  not  sneaking. 

Disposed  to  trust  others,  not  suspicious.  Just,  not  unfair. 

Sociable,  not  exclusive  nor  snobbish.  Harmonious,  not  wrangling. 

Tactful,  not  brusque  nor  priggish.  Forgiving,  not  vindictive. 

Generous,  not  stingy  nor  jealous.  Loyal,  not  treacherous. 

Public-spirited  and  patriotic,  not  selfish.  Pure,  not  lewd. 

Reverent,  not  impudent  nor  flippant.  Courteous,  not  rude. 

Emotional  Character,  needed  for  the  joy  of  living. 

Capable  of  true  love,  not  cold-hearted.  Courageous,  not  timid. 

Kindly,  not  cruel  nor  hateful.  Sympathetic,  not  self-centered. 

Responsive  to  the  beautiful,  not  indifferent.  Congenial,  not  repulsive. 

Devoted  to  righteousness,  not  inclined  to  evil.  Alive  to  truth,  not  uninterested. 

Humble,  not  conceited.  Patient,  not  irritable. 

Tolerant  and  with  a  sense  of  humor,  not  angry  Hopeful,  not  pessimistic. 
over  differences  of  opinion. 

Physical  Character,  needed  as  a  basis  for  human  life. 

Well-developed  body,  not  poorly  nourished.  Vital,  not  sluggish. 

High  resistance  to  disease,  not  susceptible.  Endurance,  not  quickly  tired. 

Ready  muscular  control,  not  bungling.  Strength,  without  disability. 

Grace  of  figure  and  carriage,  not  frumpy. 

VI—  FINE    ART. 

As  shown  in  the  outline  on  page  206,  man  promotes  the  growth 
of  a  new  art — fine  art — when  in  his  development,  he  reaches  the 
point  where  he  seeks  expression  for  his  aesthetic  emotions.  Craving 
quiet,  rest,  peace,  balance,  harmony, — whatever  the  emotion  be 
named, — man  seeks  the  satisfaction  of  this  longing  in  the  world 
about  him.  When  he  once  attains  a  satisfactory  expression  of  the 
harmony  which  he  finds  in  his  material,  social,  and  thought  worlds, 
the  result  is  called  fine  art. 

The  field  of  fine  art  naturally  divides  into  music,  drawing,  and 
literature,  according  as  the  expression  is  that  of  beauty  in  sound; 
in  line,  form,  and  color;  or  in  human  relationships. 

Preliminary  to  the  attainment  of  fine  art,  the  race  made  numer- 
ous motor  adjustments  bordering  on  art,  and  using  art  materials, 
yet  lacking  one  or  more  of  the  principles  necessary  to  make  the  re- 
sult true  art. 

In  a  similar  way,  children  of  elementary-school  age  must  needs 
use  art  materials  long  before  they  can  produce  artistic  results.  Be- 
fore school  age,  as  well  as  in  the  kindergarten  and  primary  grades, 
when  children  make  mud  pies  or  clay  animals  and  fruit;  use  build- 
ing-blocks of  different  kinds;  scribble;  dance  and  play  in  rhythmic 
games;  and  hear  and  use  language;  they  are  making  responses  and 
gaining  experiences  upon  which  fine  art  can  later  be  built. 

The  function  of  the  school  is  to  guide  these  responses  so  that 
each  individual  may  attain  the  highest  development  of  which  he  is 
capable.     The  subject-matter  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  field 


Music. — General  Statement.  191 

must,   like   all  other  subject-matter,   be   selected   and   distributed 
according  to  definite  principles.     (See  pp.  206-207). 

A.— MUSIC. 

Music  is  the  result  of  man's  efforts  to  express  instinctive  rhythms, 
emotions,  and  highest  aspirations,  through  the  use  of  harmonized 
sounds.  Rhythmical  body  movements  such  as  are  found  in  primi- 
tive and  folk-dancing,  in  whistling  and  singing,  and  in  playing 
upon  instruments  invented  to  fit  man's  developing  tastes,  are  the 
present  means  of  expressing  this  harmony. 

Since  the  human  voice  is  not  only  the  most  universal  and  im- 
mediately accessible  but  also  the  most  wonderful  instrument 
known  to  musicians,  singing  will  continue  to  be,  as  it  has  long  been, 
the  phase  of  music  to  be  emphasized  in  our  public  schools. 

Like  the  other  arts,  music  is  based  on  harmony — harmony  be- 
tween thought  and  its  expression,  consistency  within  any  one  form 
of  musical  expression,  and  right  relations  between  the  phases  of 
the  art  and  the  individual's  emotional  and  spiritual  development. 

Because  teachers  and  parents  see  year  by  year  new  values  in 
the  control  of  this  phase  of  knowledge,  the  aims  of  music  study 
have  accumulated  into  a  long  list.  None  of  the  earlier  aims  can 
or  should  be  discarded,  but  the  relative  values  of  all  must  be  set- 
tled and  each  given  its  rightful  place  as  a  factor  in  the  final  result 
to  be  desired.  At  different  times,  places,  or  stages  of  development, 
we  find  music  to  be:  (1)  A  "pleasing  diversion  or  relaxation;"  (2) 
an  expression  of  an  individual's  feelings;  (3)  an  appeal  to  others' 
feelings;  (4)  a  factor  in  unifying  a  group  (congregation,  mob,  or 
community);  (5)  a  drill  in  intellectuality  (perception  and  analysis); 
(6)  an  appreciation  of  technique;  (7)  a  moral  or  ethical  uplift; 
and  (S)  an  expression  of  highest  self-realization,  which  comes  to 
the  artist  with  creation,  or  to  the  layman  with  interpretative 
power — one  of  the  rarer  delights  resulting  from  long  study  and 
effort. 

Appreciation  and  love  of  good  music  are  within  the  grasp  of  all; 
but,  like  the  love  of  good  literature,  they  can  not  be  gained  by 
mere  knowledge  of  symbols  (words  or  notes),  though  such  knowl- 
edge may  be  made  to  aid  appreciation.  If  the  work  on  symbols 
be  isolated,  as  it  too  often  has  been,  it  ends  in  "mechanical  exer- 
cises which  grow  distasteful  and  almost  meaningless."  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  children  are  unguided  in  their  choice  of  songs  or  un- 
trained in  their  use  of  the  voice,  the  result  is  seen  in  crude  taste 
and  execrable  execution.  Later  attempts  to  develop  good  taste 
and  to  arouse  the  critical  faculty  only  show  the  child  how  grotesque 


192  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

are  his  own  efforts,  and  end  in  his  abandonment  of  all  attempts  at 
musical  expression,  and,  possibly,  even  of  appreciation. 

In  common  with  all  teachers,  the  teacher  of  music  must  de- 
velop what  ability  is  already  within  the  pupil — must  begin  on  his 
plane  and  lift  him  very  gradually  to  higher  planes.  Two  main 
lines  of  effort  are  necessary:  (1)  The  pupil  must  have  his  "range  of 
sound  concepts"  steadily  enlarged,  so  that  he  finally  makes  many 
and  fine  discriminations,  whereas  at  first  the  ordinary  child  feels 
few  and  only  coarser  differences.  (Monotones  seem  to  make  no 
discriminations.)  Sense  training,  much  listening,  and  rote-singing 
of  songs  within  the  pupil's  ken,  are  some  of  the  means  employed  by 
teachers  to  secure  this  broader  range  of  sound  concepts.  (2)  The 
child  must  have,  as  in  other  content  subjects,  increased  and  varied 
experiences  of  a  general  nature,  as  well  as  in  the  specific  field  of 
music.  He  must,  through  doing,  get  a  fundamental  background 
for  imaginary  situations  before  the  literature  of  music  will  appeal. 

The  following  outline  is  furnished  through  the  courtesy  of — 

MISS  ELSIE  M.  SHAWE, 
Supervisor  of  Music,  Public  Schools,  St.  Paul. 
The  attempt  has  been   made   to  suggest  work   which   can  he 
carried  out  under  existing  circumstances  by  the  teachers  in  the 
State  of  Minnesota. 

COURSE  IN  MUSIC  FOR  GRADES  I  TO  VIII  INCLUSIVE. 

SYLLABUS. 

Rhythm. — Development  of  the  feeling  for  and  ability  to  express 
rhythm  in  bodily  movements. 

Ear  Training. — Appreciation  of  and  discrimination  between 
musical  sounds. 

Voice  Training. — Proper  use  of  the  voice,  and  ability  to  sing 
many  songs. 

Eye  Training. — Sight  reading. 

Harmony. — Singing  of  part-songs;  orchestral  ensemble. 

Musical  Appreciation. — Cultivation  of  a  taste  for  the  best  music, 
by  singing  good  songs  and  hearing  good  vocal  and  instrumental 
compositions. 

Outlines. — Grade  I. 

Rhythm. — Cultivation  of  the  feeling  for  rhythm,  and  ability  to 
interpret  it  by  bodily  movements.  The  phonograph  may  be  used 
here  to  advantage;  use  records  of  a  strong  rhythmic  character. 

Ear  Training. — Recognition  by  children  of  melodies  that  have 
been  heard  frequently,  whether  sung  by  teacher  without  words,  or 


Music. — Grades  II  and  III.  193 

played  on  piano  or  phonograph.  Rote  songs  may  be  learned 
directly  from  the  phonograph  record.  Phonograph  records  of  many 
suitable  songs  for  children  of  this  grade  are  available. 

Voice. — Children  of  this  grade  who  have  not  the  ability  to  sing 
simple  songs  should  be  given  daily  individual  help.  The  frequent 
cause  of  the  monotone  is  the  incorrect  use  of  the  voice;  if  the 
teacher  uses  a  light  quality  of  voice  in  illustrating  for  the  children, 
and  leads  them  to  use  the  head-voice  exclusively  in  singing,  prac- 
tically every  child  will  be  able  to  sing  simple  songs  when  he  leaves 
this  grade.  From  twenty-five  to  forty  songs  should  be  learned  by 
the  children  during  the  two  semesters. 

Grade  II. 

Rhythm. — Development  in  the  children  of  the  feeling  for  strong 
pulsations  in  music,  through  listening  to  vocal  and  instrumental 
compositions.  Children  may  indicate  the  beats  of  a  piece  of  music 
by  tapping,  clapping,  marching,  swaying  or  bending  of  body,  etc. 
The  phonograph  may  be  used  to  advantage.  Use  records  of  a 
strong  rhythmic  character. 

Ear  Training. — Recognition  by  children  of  melodies  that  have 
been  heard  frequently.  Some  rote  songs  may  be  learned  directly 
from  the  phonograph  records.  To  cultivate  the  listening  habit, 
have  the  children  occasionally  sing  their  rote  songs  with  piano  ac- 
companiment, or  phonograph  record. 

Tone  Relationship. — As  an  introduction  to  sight  reading,  have 
children  learn,  by  rote,  about  fifteen  simple  songs  with  syllable 
names. 

Sight  Reading. — Children  should  begin  to  read  music  in  this 
grade.  Use  many  simple  songs  in  all  keys,  and  in  the  various 
meters  commonly  used,  and  have  children  read  the  songs  collec- 
tively and  individually  with  syllable  names,  and  later  with  words. 

Musical  Appreciation. — The  rote  songs,  songs  for  sight  reading, 
and  music  played  on  piano  or  phonograph,  should  in  all  cases  be 
good,  so  that  a  taste  for  the  best  will  be  cultivated  in  the  child. 

Grade  III. 

Rhythm. — Development  in  the  children  of  the  feeling  for  strong 
and  weak  pulsations  in  music,  through  listening  to  vocal  and  in- 
strumental compositions.  Children  may  indicate  the  beats  of  a 
piece  of  music  by  tapping  lightly  on  desk.  The  phonograph  may 
be  used  to  advantage;  use  records  of  a  strong  rhythmic  character. 

Ear  Training. — Recognition  by  children  of  melodies  that  have 
been  heard  frequently.     The  listening  habit  is  cultivated  by  having 


194  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

the  children  occasionally  sing  their  rote  songs  with  accompaniment 
or  phonograph  record.  It  is  advisable  that  children  hear  songs 
that  illustrate  the  pure,  light,  sustained  tones  that  children  should 
use  exclusively  in  singing.  Many  phonograph  records  are  avail- 
able for  this  purpose.  Teachers  should  take  great  care  to  use  only 
the  right  quality  of  voice  in  teaching  the  rote  songs. 

Sight  Reading. — Children  should  read,  collectively,  and  indi- 
vidually, many  simple  one-part  songs,  written  in  all  keys  and  in 
the  various  meters  in  common  use.  The  last  half  of  this  year,  the 
songs  for  sight  reading  may  contain  the  rhythm  commonly  known 
as  the  "equally-divided  beat." 

Musical  Appreciation. — The  rote  songs,  songs  for  sight  reading, 
and  music  played  on  piano  or  phonograph,  should  in  all  cases  be 
good,  so  that  a  taste  for  the  best  will  be  cultivated  in  the  child. 
Suggestions  are  gained  for  the  proper  interpretation  of  songs, 
through  listening  to  good  phonograph  records. 

Grade  IV. 

Rhythm. — Continued  development  in  the  children  of  the  feeling 
for  strong  and  weak  pulsations  in  music,  through  listening  to  vocal 
and  instrumental  compositions.  In  the  last  half  of  this  year,  pre- 
sent six-eight  measure,  as  compound  double  meter— two  beats  to  a 
measure;  it  will  aid  the  children  in  the  proper  feeling  for  and  in- 
terpretation of  this  rhythm  if  they  listen  to  rhythmic  music  writ- 
ten in  six-eight  measure,  such  as  "Barcarolles,"  "Cradle-Songs,"  etc. 

Ear  Training. — Recognition  by  children  of  musical  composi- 
tions that  have  been  heard  frequently.  Children  will  be  ready, 
the  last  half  of  this  year,  to  read  simple  two-part  songs.  As  an  aid 
to  clear,  pure  two-part  singing,  have  class  listen  to  duos,  both  vocal 
and  instrumental;  good  phonograph  records  are  available  for  this 
purpose.  Listening  to  music  written  in  minor  keys  develops  an 
appreciation  of  this  mode,  which  is  necessary  for  the  proper  render- 
ing of  songs  in  the  minor  mode. 

Sight  Reading. — Children  should  read,  collectively  and  individu- 
ally, many  good  one-part  songs  written  in  all  keys,  and  in  the 
various  meters  in  common  use.  These  songs  may  contain  the 
rhythms  known  as  "equally-"  and  "unequally-divided  beat,"  "beat- 
and-a-half  note,"  etc.;  and  chromatic  tones,  where  the  progressions 
are  simple.  The  last  half  of  the  year,  simple  two-part  music  may 
be  introduced. 

Musical  Appreciation. — Only  good  music  should  be  sung  and 
heard  by  the  children,  so  that  a  taste  for  the  best  will  be  cultivated. 


Music. — Grades  V  and  VI.  195 

Suggestions  are  gained  for  the  proper  interpretation  of  songs  by 
listening  to  good  phonograph  records. 

Grade  V. 

Ear  Training. — As  an  aid  to  clear,  pure,  two-part  singing,  have 
class  listen  to  duos,  both  vocal  and  instrumental.  Good  phono- 
graph records  are  available  for  this  purpose.  Children  should 
become  familiar  with  the  minor  as  well  as  the  major  mode;  fre- 
quent listening  to  music  in  both  modes  will  result  in  the  desired 
appreciation. 

Sight  Reading. — Songs  for  this  grade  are  in  one-  and  two-part; 
they  may  contain  chromatic  tones,  and  any  rhythm  in  common 
use.  The  voices  of  the  pupils  of  this  grade  are  in  most  cases  of 
the  same  quality  and  compass,  and  the  alto  part  in  the  two-part 
songs  should  not  be  sung  exclusively  by  one  division  of  the  class. 

Theory. — Through  the  reading  of  music  in  grades  two,  three, 
and  four,  children  have  gained  a  knowledge  of  the  staff,  note  and 
rest  forms  and  values,  and  meter  signatures.  In  the  fifth  grade, 
children  should  learn  the  place  on  the  staff  of  the  key-note,  in 
eleven  major  keys. 

Musical  Appreciation. — Recognition  by  pupils  of  musical  com- 
positions that  have  been  heard  frequently.  Only  good  music 
should  be  sung  and  heard  by  the  children,  so  that  a  taste  for  the 
best  will  be  cultivated.  Suggestions  are  gained  for  the  proper  in- 
terpretation of  songs,  by  listening  to  good  phonograph  records. 

Grade  VI. 

Ear  Training. — Give  pupils  the  opportunity  of  listening  to 
good  part-music.  It  is  advisable  in  some  cases  to  introduce  three- 
part  singing  the  last  half  of  this  year;  as  a  preparation  for  this 
work,  have  pupils  listen  to  simple  three-part  music,  preferably  un- 
accompanied.    The  phonograph  may  be  used. 

Sight  Reading. — The  course  in  sight  reading  for  this  grade 
should  consist  chiefly  of  good  two-part  songs.  In  classes  in  which 
there  is  a  sufficient  number  of  alto  voices,  three-part  singing  may 
be  introduced  the  last  half  of  the  year. 

Voice  Testing. — The  voices  of  all  pupils  in  this  grade  should  be 
tested  individually,  twice  during  the  school  year,  and  each  pupil 
assigned  to  the  vocal  part  to  which  his  voice  is  best  suited. 

Musical  Appreciation. — Recognition  by  pupils  of  musical  com- 
positions that  have  been  heard  frequently.  After  hearing  a  com- 
position for  the  first  time,  pupils  should  be  able  to  classify  simple 
musical  forms  such  as  march,  waltz,  minuet,  cradle  songs,  etc. 
Only  good  music  should  be  sung  and  heard  by  the  children,  so  that 


196  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

a  taste  for  the  best  will  be  cultivated.  Suggestions  are  gained  for 
the  proper  interpretation  of  songs  by  listening  to  good  phonograph 
records. 

Grades  VII  and  VIII. 

Ear  Training. — Listening  to  the  quality  or  timbre  of  musical 
instruments,  and  making  comparisons,  is  good  training  for  the  ear. 
Some  phonograph  records  reproduce  quite  satisfactorily  the  tone 
quality  of  orchestral  instruments,  and  could  be  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. As  an  aid  to  clear,  pure  part-singing  have  pupils  listen  to 
trios  and  quartettes,  both  vocal  and  instrumental;  phonograph 
records  may  be  used. 

Sight  Reading. — The  course  in  sight  reading  for  the  seventh 
grade,  and  in  some  cases  for  the  eighth  grade,  should  consist  chiefly 
of  good  three-part  songs.  If  there  is  a  sufficient  number  of  boys 
in  the  school  with  bass  voices,  they  should  unite  with  the  eighth 
grade,  and  the  eighth-grade  class  should  then  study  songs  in  four 
parts. 

Voice  Testing. — The  voices  of  all  pupils  in  these  grades  should 
be  tested  twice  during  the  school  year,  and  each  pupil  assigned  to 
the  vocal  part  to  which  his  voice  is  best  suited. 

Theory. — Elementary  theory  of  music  should  be  learned  in 
connection  with  the  actual  study  of  music,  and  not  as  a  formal 
study  of  signs  and  terms.  Through  the  reading  of  music,  pupils 
have  gained  a  knowledge  of  the  staff,  note  and  rest  forms  and 
values,  major,  minor,  and  chromatic  scales,  and  key  and  meter 
signatures.  Tests  covering  this  theory  should  be  given  eighth- 
grade  pupils. 

Orchestra. — An  orchestra  is  a  valuable  asset  in  a  school.  En- 
courage pupils  to  study  musical  instruments,  and  wherever  possible 
organize  a  grade-school  orchestra.  In  some  cities  and  towns  of 
the  United  States,  class  instruction  is  given  pupils  in  the  public 
schools,  in  piano,  and  also  violin  and  other  orchestral  instruments. 
Competent  teachers  of  these  instruments  are  provided,  and  the 
lessons  are  given  in  the  school-building,  usually  outside  of  school 
hours,  pupils  in  most  cases  paying  a  nominal  fee  for  the  lessons. 
Class  instruction  gives  pupils  the  opportunity  of  hearing  and  see- 
ing others  at  work,  and  the  results  are  favorable  to  the  individual. 

Musical  Appreciation. — Recognition  by  pupils  of  musical  com- 
positions that  have  been  frequently  heard.  Children  of  this  grade 
are  interested  in  overtures  and  other  instrumental  compositions, 
excerpts  from  operas  and  oratorios,  and  the  best  "art-songs."  It 
is  important  that  pupils  should  know  the  titles  and  the  names  of 
the  composers  of  musical  compositions  to  which  they  listen. 


Drawing. — Outline.  197 

B— DRAWING. 

Drawing  and  its  related  arts,  painting,  sculpture,  and  architec- 
ture, grew  out  of  man's  desire  to  express  in  various  mediums  the 
beauty  he  saw  or  dreamed  of  in  line,  in  form,  and  in  color. 

In  lieu  of  a  full  discussion  of  the  subject,  already  so  ably  treated 
by  Bailey,  Sargent,  and  others,  a  brief  outline  of  various  topics 
necessary  for  teachers  to  consider  follows: 

I.  Development  of  the  various  forms  of  the  drawing  art. 

A.  Drawing. 

1.  Grew  from  man's  desire  to  communicate  and  to  record  experiences, 

hence  the  first  efforts  were  to  portray  an  object  as  it  was;  that 
demanded  exactness  of  observation,  and  accuracy  of  line  relation- 
ships. Soon,  details,  differences,  and  ill-proportioned  accuracies, 
were  omitted  or  idealized,  so  that  beauty  in  line  developed. 

2.  A  proper  "setting"  for  an  object  or  a  part  of  an  object  created  per- 

spective; later,  laws  of  perspective  were  worked  out. 

3.  A  desire  that  an  object  should  fit  its  function  caused  the  laws  of 

design  to  be  developed. 

4.  Decoration  of  loved  objects  naturally  followed. 

B.  Painting. 

1.  Developed  from  attempts  to  express  harmony  of  color. 

a.  With  spectrum  colors,     b.  With  light  and  shade  in  one  tone. 

2.  Demanded  study  of  space  and  mass  relationships,  rather  than  mere 

line  relationships. 

3.  Created  additional  laws  of  drawing,  design,  decoration,  and  perspec- 

tive.    (Composition.) 

4.  Developed  a  technique  of  each  medium. 

a.  Water-colors.         b.  Oils.         c.  Pastels,  etc. 

C.  Sculpture. 

1.  Application  of  principles  of  drawing,  design,  and  composition,  to  a 

new  medium — clay,  plaster,  marble,  etc. 

2.  Study  of  anatomy,  architecture,  etc.,  according  to  form  of  sculpture 

to  be  used. 

D.  Architecture. 

1.  Application  of  named  principles  to  construction  and  ornamentation 
of  buildings.  * 

II.  Aims  of  elementary-school  instruction  in  the  drawing  arts. 

A.  To  make  art  an  aid  to  the  language  arts,  to  nature-study,  and  to  industry 

especially,  but  also  to  other  school  subjects. 

B.  To  secure  steady  growth  in  the  child's  ability — 

1.  To  illustrate  an  idea  or  thought  by  doing;  for  example,  modeling  an 

apple  in  clay,  cutting  a  tree  from  paper,  making  a  pattern  for  a 
star,  or  a  box,  etc.  That  is,  to  represent,  showing  better  and 
better  control  of  the  medium  and  better  powers  of  observation. 

2.  To  make  a  specific  into  a  general  notion;  that  is,  to  conventionalize. 

3.  To  add  to  a  specific  idea;  in  other  words,  to  idealize. 

4.  To  apply  principles  learned  to  new  situations;  that  is,   to  decorate, 

to  design,  and  to  compose. 

5.  To  appreciate  better  art. 

As  an  exceptionally  fine  teacher*  of  this  subject  has  said,  fine  art  in  the  ele- 
mentary school  should  be,  what  it  is  for  the  majority  of  us  through  life,  "the 
handmaid  of  other  subjects,"  as  well  as  of  our  thinking.  In  adulthood  most  of 
us  express  ourselves,  not  in  creating  art,  but  in  selecting  what  we  "believe  to  be 
either  useful  or  beautiful." 

III.  Materials  and  mediums  to  be  used. 
A.  In  all  grades. 

1.  Paper — for  tearing,  folding,  cutting,  mosaic  laying,  etc. 

2.  Pencils  and  crayons  of  all  kinds.     3.  Water-colors  and  brushes. 

*  Miss  Bertha  H.  Speckman,  Winona. 


198  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

4.  Clay,  or  some  other  plastic  material  such  as  plasticene,  papier  mache, 

or  salt  and  cornstarch  paste,  if  clay  is  not  obtainable. 

5.  Beautiful  works  of  art  in  the  original,  in  lantern  slides,  or  in  pictures. 
B.  In  different  grades. 

Construction  materials  to  suit  ability,  skill,  and  interest  of  pupils;  for 
example,  wood  for  toys,  materials  for  Christmas  gifts  or  for  house- 
hold and  personal  conveniences,  etc. 
While,  throughout  the  elementary  school,  the  real  problem  for  the  child  is  to 
learn  to  draw,  the  materials  and  mediums  selected  for  practice  must  ever  be  the 
most  artistic  obtainable.     Art  materials  are  not  chosen  to  make  the  child  think 
that  he  is  creating  art,  but  so  that  whatever  he  learns  may  readily  function,  later, 
when  he  does  reach  the  stage  where  he  can  independently  create  or  appreciate 
fine  art.     This  use  of  art  materials  for  the  child  who  is  learning  to  draw  is  analo- 
gous to  the  employment  of  good  literature  for  the  child  who  is  learning  to  read. 

IV.  Methods. 

Throughout  the  grades  the  work  in  fine  art  should  parallel  the  children's 
mental  and  emotional  development,  being  used  largely  as  a  means  of  self-expres- 
sion but  also  of  reaching  towards  highest  self-realization.  Adult  standards  forced 
upon  the  child  kill  spontaneity,  interest,  and  growth,  produce  fear  of  self-expres- 
sion (self-consciousness),  and  result  in  formal,  imitative  work  of  no  value. 

Beginning  with  the  child's  early  desire  for  decorating  objects,  and  of  coloring 
things,  the  teacher  may  lead  him — 

1.  To  design  decorations  that  harmonize  with  the  object  and  its  function. 

2.  To  select  something  appropriate  and  beautiful  in  the  material  world  about 

him  as  the  core  of  that  design. 

3.  To  study  that  object  through  representing  it  in  different  mediums  (paper 

tearing  or  cutting,  stick  laying,  clay  modeling,  crayons,  etc.) 

4.  To  conventionalize  the  idea  gained  from  the  object. 

5.  To  apply  the  design  properly. 

6.  To  develop  taste,  appreciating  (a)  nature  in  its  varied  expressions,  as  well 

as  (b)  the  ability  of  great  artists  to  help  others  see  beauties  in  life 
about  them. 

As  in  other  subjects,  power  is  gained  by  several  methods — trial  and  success; 
imitation;  awakening  intelligence,  imagination,  and  emotions;  study  of  technique; 
and  trying  to  express  the  ideal  in  mind  at  the  time.  The  teacher's  function  is  to 
lift  the  pupil  to  a  higher  plane  as  soon  as  he  is  ready  for  it,  but  not  before. 

The  different  mediums  employed  are  found  to  be  valuable  in  all  grades,  the 
only  difference  being  the  natural  development  that  comes  with  maturity— greater 
skill  in  handling  the  materials,  better  taste,  richer  experiences,  more  complex 
ideas,  and  surer  grasp  of  principles.  Results  should  be  much  less  thought  of  than 
process,  and  an  exhibit  of  work  which  shows  how  pupils  grew  in  thinking  power, 
in  appreciation,  in  invention,  in  taste,  is  of  much  greater  value  than  one  which 
shows  results  (especially  if  adults  have  "doctored"  up  those  results). 

V.  General  results  to  expect. 

In  first  grade:  (a)  Pure  love  of  using  the  mediums.  (Mixing  colors,  daub- 
ing, molding  clay,  for  example.)  (b)  Rhythm,  even  when  not  present 
in  the  object  represented.  (A  six-year-old,  for  illustration,  will  cut  a 
symmetrical  tree  while  looking  at  one  with  branches  on  just  one  side.) 
(c)  Uncontrolled  lines,  (d)  Vivid  color  combinations,  (e)  Attempts 
at  communication  of  ideas. 

In  second  grade:  Not  noticeably  different  from  first-grade  work,  except  with 
individuals  and  in  muscular  coordination  so  that  results  look  better. 
Children  are  satisfied  with  the  result  if  they  feel  they  have  worked. 

In  third  grade:  The  use  of  materials  is  undertaken  with  more  purpose  (not 
just  daubing).  There  awakes  a  more  conscious  desire  to  know  "how 
to  do  it,"  hence  pupils  imitate  the  process  of  the  teacher  or  others,  ob- 
serve the  object  to  be  portrayed  more  closely,  represent  ideas  more  ac- 
curately than  before,  and  check  results  by  comparison  of  their  work 
with  that  of  others,  thus  setting  up  crude  standards  of  judgment. 

In  fourth  grade:  Pupils  begin  to  see  the  relative  values  of  parts,  and  so  no 
longer,  for  example,  make  buttons  the  most  prominent  part  of  the  pic- 
ture of  a  shoe,  but,  under  even  slight  guidance,  learn  to  subordinate  de- 


Literature.  199 

tails  to  central  ideas,  and  to  judge  worths  by  applying  only  one  or  two 
standards  at  a  time.  For  example,  this  picture  is  good  for  its  color  (let 
other  things  go);  this,  for  its  movement;  this,  for  its  spacing;  this,  for 
its  neatness  and  good  lines;  etc. 
In  fifth  and  sixth  grades:  The  children's  power  to  select  a  central  idea  and 
then  consistently  to  work  out  details  to  fit  it,  that  is,  to  organize,  shows 
in  whatever  problem  is  undertaken.  If  the  pupils  are  to  entertain  other 
grades,  the  costumes,  room  decorations,  color  scheme,  must  all  fit  the 
central  idea.  A  school  magazine  must  have  a  cover  to  suit  the  season, 
the  contents,  or  the  purpose  of  the  "publication."  Painstaking  work  is 
comparatively  easy  to  secure  if  the  need  of  such  work  is  felt  to  be  con- 
sistent with  the  central  plan. 

In  seventh  and  eighth  grades:  The  same  organization  of  details  about  a  cen- 
tral idea  may  be  expected,  but  the  "problems"  should  be  more  like  adult 
problems,  challenging  the  awakening  "grown-up-ness"  of  the  students. 
Finer  accuracy,  better  judgment  of  values,  and  greater  personal  re- 
sponsibility for  the  doing  well  of  all  assigned  work,  should  be  demanded. 
Community  effort  should  be  common,  while  individual  tastes  and  in- 
terests should  at  the  same  time  be  encouraged.  The  correlation  of  fine 
art  with  industry,  nature  study,  literature,  and  language,  gives  a  wide 
selection  of  "problems." 
The  note-book  work  of  upper-grade  pupils  gives  them  many  opportunities 

for  learning  good  methods  of  collecting  and  arranging  material  so  as  to  illustrate 

given  subjects,  and  for  using  design  in  decoration. 

C— LITERATURE. 

Literature  is  the  result  of  a  universal  desire,  satisfied  by  the 
genius  of  a  few,  to  harmonize  cause  and  effect  in  social  relationships. 
In  true  literature  given  causes  can  produce  but  one  effect;  wrong  is 
punished  and  right  rewarded.  True,  the  punishment  or  the  re- 
ward may  appear  in  new  form  to  us;  but  the  truth  remains. 

Real  literature  is  tested  primarily  by  the  universality  of  its  con- 
tent— does  it  contain  an  abiding  truth  felt  by  all  ages  in  all  climes? 
As  we  go  about  our  daily  tasks  we  are  too  close  to  ourselves  and  to 
our  neighbors  always  to  appreciate  the  larger  truths  of  life;  but 
when  we  observe  the  inner  and  detailed  relationships  among  sev- 
eral persons  during  years,  as  we  do  in  reading  "Dombey  and  Son," 
for  example,  we  have  time  to  note  the  universal  truths  that  send  us 
back  to  daily  work  with  greater  faith  in  the  justice  of  life,  with  re- 
newed courage  to  live  our  best,  and  with  greater  tolerance  for  the 
frailties  of  others. 

Other  tests  for  good  literature  also  have  "harmony"  for  the  key- 
note: we  expect  the  expression  to  correspond  to  the  thought;  we 
want  the  vocabulary  as  well  as  the  ideas  to  satisfy  our  ideals,  to 
enlarge  our  vision,  or  to  play  upon  our  imagination;  we  want  to  be 
stirred  by  the  proper  emotions  as  we  progress  in  our  interpretation 
of  character,  and  should  feel  decidedly  tricked  had  Dickens  made 
John  Carker's  career  end  other  than  it  did. 

Because,  then,  literature  deals  with  universal  types  of  truth,  put 
into  beautiful  or  consistent  form,  and  because  we  can  there  see  ideal 


200  Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

social  relationships  by  which  to  guide  our  own  conduct,  it  is  desir- 
able that  all  learn  to  read,  to  understand,  and  thoroughly  to  love 
literature;  and  that  this  may  be  accomplished,  children  of  all  ages 
should  be  surrounded  by  good  literature. 

In  school  this  is  best  accomplished  by  using  literature  as  the 
subject-matter  of  language  and  reading,  so  that  the  pupils'  acquired 
"love  of  reading"  or  "the  reading  habit"  invariably  means  a  love 
of  literature.  Or,  used  as  supplementary  material,  literature  may, 
in  youth,  clinch  a  nature-study  lesson,  and  then  be  recalled  in  adult- 
hood as  a  bit  of  real  philosophy.  Industry,  geography,  and  history, 
are  dignified,  enriched,  or  vivified,  by  means  of  related  literature, 
while  the  other  arts,  drawing  and  music,  are  inextricably  bound  up 
with  it.  In  other  words,  while  literature,  like  drawing  and  music, 
has  a  content  of  its  own,  it  yet  makes  a  superior  handmaid  to  other 
subjects. 

Classic  stories,  fairy  tales,  myths,  legends,  hero  tales,  and  poetry, 
should  in  all  grades  be  heard,  read,  reproduced,  copied,  committed 
to  memory,  or  imitated  in  writing,  for  by  these  means  pupils  grow 
accustomed  to  the  vocabulary  of  the  best  literature,  have  as  back- 
ground the  knowledge  which  leads  to  an  appreciation  of  metaphor 
and  allusion,  and  acquire  the  habit  of  sustained  thinking,  of  seeing 
images  clearly,  and  of  judging  worths. 

For  suggestions  concerning  literature  to  be  used  in  different 
grades,  consult  (1)  the  courses  in  Language  and  Reading,  (2)  pp. 
301-302,  and  (3)  The  Minnesota  School  Library  List,  which  is  a 
rich  mine  in  itself. 

SUMMARY  OF  SUGGESTIONS —TAKEN  FROM  THE  "DIAGRAM." 

Grade  I.     Rhythmic  tales,  cumulative  tales,  rhymes,  and  fairy  tales. — p.  16. 

Grade  II.  Same  as  first  grade  plus  Nature  myths,  some  Greek  and  Norse  myths.  Poems  of 
childhood  (Field,  Riley,  R.  L.  Stevenson,  etc.) — p.  19. 

Grade  III.  Humor — Uncle  Remus,  Just  So  Stories,  Letters  from  a  Cat,  Pinocchio,  Merry  Ani- 
mal Tales.  Imagery,  color-tone,  long  words,  etc.  True  stories — Tree  Dwellers,  etc.  Indian 
Life,  Colonial  Days,  Viking  Tales,  Robinson  Crusoe,  Seven  Little  Sisters,  etc. — pp.  25,  82. 

Grade  IV.  Recognition  and  respect  for  law  and  courage.  Same  as  above  plus  Robin  Hood,  Wil- 
liam Tell,  historical  tales,  biography,  lives  of  great  Americans,  etc.  Jungle  Books.  Humor 
of  finer  kind. — pp.  30,  86. 

Grade  V.  Vaguely  appreciating  bigness  oj  -world,  and  of  life — hence,  stories  of  adventure  and 
biography — Arthurian  legends,  Ulysses,  Beowulf,  Roland,  Perseus,  historical  characters 
everywhere.     Gold  Bug,  Treasure  Island,  books  by  Seton-Thompson.     Poetry. 

Grade  VI.  Similar  to  fifth.  Poetry:  Ballads,  Canterbury  Tales,  Iliad,  Odyssey,  William  Tell, 
Lays  of  Ancient  Rome.  Stories  of  foreign  lands  and  of  children  away  from  home — Hans 
Brinker,  Arthur  Bonnicastle,  Tom  Brown's  School  Days,  Little  Men,  etc. — pp.  43,  92. 

Grade  VII.  Great  individual  differences,  hence  wide  range  necessary.  Stories  of  individual 
success  and  courage.  Biographies,  Writings  of  Cooper,  Scott,  Lamb,  Hugo,  Dickens,  Rus- 
kin,  Plutarch,  Prescott,  Thackeray,  Tennyson,  Warner,  Irving,  Alcott,  etc. — p.  50. 

Grade  VIII.  More  of  one  line  of  reading.  Literature  about  great  men,  great  industries,  great  en- 
terprises, etc.  Same  authors  as  seventh  plus  Shakespeare,  Eliot,  Hawthorne,  Hale,  Gra- 
ham, Holmes,  Bangs,  Webster,  Vandyke.     Current  literary  magazines. — pp.  58,  96. 


PART  II. 


MANUAL  FOR  TEACHERS 

A  .--HIGHEST  SELF-REALIZATION  AS  THE  AIM  OF   EDU- 
CATION, THE  BASIS  FOR  THIS  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

This  Course  of  Study  elaborates  as  the  aim  of  education  the 
highest  self-realization  of  the  individual,  through  his  active  adjust- 
ment* to  the  three  phases  of  his  life:  physical,  social,  and  spirit- 
ual. 

Since  life  demands  constant  adjustment  as  a  means  of  growth, 
— since,  today,  like  Alice  in  Looking-glass  Land,  one  has  to  run 
barely  to  keep  his  place  in  the  world, — education,  as  one  phase  of 
life,  furthers  the  individual's  power  (1)  consciously  to  select  the 
best  adjustments  to  make  for  his  development,  and  (2)  purposely 
to  employ  the  best  means  of  making  the  selected  adjustments. 

Since  the  best  means  can  never  be  employed  unless  the  end  is 
known,  education  is  forced  to  name  its  own  goal,  as  well  as  to  select 
the  materials  for  and  methods  of  attaining  that  goal.  The  goal, 
however,  like  the  end  of  the  rainbow,  or  the  distant  mountain, 
recedes  with  the  seeker's  advance.  Because  some  grow  weary,  and, 
losing  sight  of  the  distant  end,  make  an  end  of  the  means;  because 
others  go  on  to  the  end,  there  to  find  richer  returns  than  can  be 
measured  by  the  fabled  pot  of  gold;  and  because  many,  in  between, 
find  the  means  as  end  too  narrow,  and  yet  miss  high  spiritual  values 
on  account  of  limited  interpretative  power;  the  aim  (or  goal,  or 
end)  of  education  has  come  to  be  stated  in  a  myriad  of  ways.  Of 
all  these,  self-realization,  obtained  through  subordination  as  well  as 
elevation  of  the  individual  in  the  process  of  his  socialization,  seems 
the  goal  best  suited  to  modern  American  thought,  even  as  it  was  to 
Grecian  when  Athens  ruled  the  world. 

Self-realization  is  best  attained  by  living  a  nobly  purposeful 
life;  but,  since  all  adults  of  the  community  want  the  youth  of  the 
race  to  come  to  their  own  more  quickly  and  more  certainly  than 
they  can  if  left  to  the  chance  teachings  of  life,  the  specialized  phase 
of  life  (or  of  education)  called  "schooling"  must  choose  a  road  to 
the  final  end,  along  which  are  set  up  transitory  goals  able  to  be 
striven  for  by  the  young.  To  do  this,  those  interested  in  the  pro- 
cesses of  education  (parents,  teachers,  and  all  adults  of  the  commu- 
nity) must  discover  (1)  what  goal  men  seek  through  the  adjust- 
ments they  make  both  for  their  own  development  and  that  of  the 
group  in  which  they  live;  (2)  which  phases  of  these  types  of  adjust- 

*  Carver  distinguishes  between  the  passive  adjustment  made  by  animals  and  the  active  ad- 
justment made  by  men  in  "Sociology  and  Social  Progress,"  p.  9. 


202  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

ment  miss  being  taught  in  the  general  life  of  the  child  (so  that  the 
specialized  organ  of  education — the  school — may  know  how  prop- 
erly to  supplement  what  is  learned  outside  of  school);  and  (3)  how 
these  adjustments  are  made  (so  that  the  school  may  employ  proper 
methods).  In  other  words,  the  school  must  look  to  the  activities 
in  human  life — physical,  social,  and  spiritual — to  discover  (1)  its 
aims,  (2)  its  materials,  and  (3)  its  methods. 

(1)  No  matter  how  aims  in  education  may  be  subdivided  to 
meet  the  exigencies  of  the  week,  day,  or  half-hour,  they  must  ever 
point  towards  the  eternal  values  of  Truth,  Morality,  Beauty,  and 
Holiness — those  aims  which  govern  human  adjustments  in  the  ag- 
gregate. 

(2)  No  matter  into  how  small  bits  the  subject-matter  needs  to 
be  made,  to  fit  the  various  considerations  necessary  in  its  selection 
and  distribution,  it  must  of  necessity  be  chosen  from  the  materials 
men  use  in  furthering  life  aims. 

(3)  No  matter  what  methods  are  employed,  they  will  assuredly 
be  those  methods  which  the  human  race  has  worked  out  to  meet 
changing  needs;  hence  the  teacher,  in  his  conscious  systematiza- 
tion  of  work,  the  only  economical  means  of  securing  efficiency, 
must  study  the  different  methods  open  to  selection,  the  principles 
underlying  these  different  methods,  and  the  relative  values  of  de- 
vices in  furthering  the  method  selected,  so  that  method  and  device 
may  be  judiciously  selected  and  then  used  only  so  long  as  valu- 
able.    (See  pp.  279-283.) 

Because  the  aim  of  life  is  the  fullest  possible  realization  of  the 
divine  self  in  the  individual,  the  materials  and  methods  for  fur- 
thering the  aim  must  be  found  in  a  careful  analysis  of  the  adjust- 
ments made  by  man  to  attain  his  birthright. 

B— AN  ANALYSIS  OF  HUMAN  ADJUSTMENTS.* 

As  implied  before,  self-realization  is  not  self-seeking;  it.  is  a 
result  to  be  obtained  by  serving,  not  by  being  served. 

Between  the  best  good  of  the  individual  and  the  best  good  of 
his  fellows  there  is  no  conflict;  one  man's  best  good  is  in  perfect 
harmony  with  the  good  of  all  mankind.  One  has  not  attained 
perfect  self-realization  until  he  has  so  lived  that  the  maxim  of  his 
every  act  is  fit  to  become  a  universal  lawf ;  but  as  he  approaches 
this  perfection,  this  self-realization,  he  takes  more  and  more  cogni- 
zance of  bis  fellows  and  of  his  physical  environment.  Genius-like, 
he  marvels  at  the  commonplace,  seeing  in  each  stone  and  leaf  and 
butterfly  the  mystery  of  all  life. 

An  analysis  of  human  adjustments  leads  one  to  the  century- 
old  truth  that  all  begins  in  unity  and  ends  in  unity;  that  phases  of 
life  are  temporarily  segregated  for  convenience,  but  that  all  can 
be  seen  in  each  whenever  studied.  Birth  starts  all  the  later  differ- 
entiated phases  of  adjustment  which  in  highest  self-realization 
again  unite.     In  modern  civilization,  a  child  is  born  into  the  unit 

*  For  the  impetus  to  this  analysis,  the  author  is  indebted  to  the  work  of  the  Superintendents' 
and  Principals'  Association  of  Northern  Illinois, 
t  Kant's  Categorical  Imperative. 


Analysis  of  Human  Adjustments. 


203 


of  social  life,  the  family,  and  so  his  social  adjustments  begin  almost 
at  once.  Very  soon  he  consciously  notes  his  social  surroundings, 
and  also  reaches  out  in  an  attempt  to  control  material  things  and 
to  understand  some  of  the  immaterial  or  abstract  situations  about 
him.  The  accompanying  diagram  is  an  attempt  to  represent  the 
idea  that  all  adjustments  grow  out  of  life  itself,  separate  into  three 
main  types  lying  in  the  same  plane,  at  equal  distances  one  from 
another,  yet  always  interrelated;  and  end  in  man's  highest  self- 
realization,   or  freed  personality. 

1.  Life,    the    unit    out    of 


which  all  differentiated 
experience  grows. 
2-3-4.  The  plane  in  which 
human  experiences  dif- 
ferentiate because  of  ad- 
justments to  different 
"worlds." 

2.  The  social  world. 

3.  The  material  world. 

4.  The  immaterial  world, 
or  world  of  ideas  and  of 
ideals. 

Self-realization  in  the 
highest  sense — that  uni- 
ty which  comes  after 
differentiation. 


5  SELF- REALIZATION 


5. 


IDEAS 

AND     A 

IDEALS 


SOCIAL 

WORLD 


Origin  of  elementary-school  subject-matter  in  relation 
to  human  adjustments. 

Note:  Italics  in  this  outline  indicate  the  commonly  known  school  subjects  as 
they  inevitably  grow  out  of  various  human  adjustments. 

I.  Adjustments  to  the  social  world. 

A.  In  family  life. 

1.  Communication  necessary — 

a.  Understanding    others.     (Voice,    gesture,    words.) 

(Through  the  senses;  hence,  "sense  training") 

b.  Expressing    self;    (voice,    gesture,    words;)    hence, 

language  developed.     (See  pp.  228-230.) 

2.  Family  privileges  shared;  hence,  conventional  good  man- 

ners developed.     Also,  morals  and  hygiene. 

3.  Family  labors  shared;   hence,  simple  home  industries 

learned. 

B.  In  the  larger  group — clan,  tribe,  town,  state,  world. 

1.   Cooperation  necessary — 

a.  For  protection — hence,  discipline  or  government 

upbuilt — town  moots;  building  laws,  fire  and 
police  departments,  etc.,  made. 

b.  For  economy  of  (1)  time,  (2)  energy,  (3)  money — 

hence,  civic  and  economic  laws,  taxation,  etc., 
developed. 


204  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

c.  For  interchange  of  ideas. 

(1)  In  conventions — speech  refined,  travel  nec- 

essary. 

(2)  In  print — reading   necessary;   hence,   books, 

magazines,   newspapers;   hence,   libraries. 

(3)  In  studying  social  and  economic  conditions 

of  other  peoples  in  other  lands  and  times; 
hence,  history  and  sociology. 

d.  For  spiritual  uplift — logical,  ethical,  and  aesthetic 

values  prominent  in  working  out  this — knowl- 
edge, ethics,  (esthetics,  religion. 
2.   Division  of  labor. 

a.  Inventions  made  labor  lighter. 

b.  Differentiated  industries  developed. 

(1)  Labor-^. -capital  problems. 

(2)  Child-labor  problems. 

(3)  More  inventions  made  in  every  field. 

c.  Exchange  of  excess  products  of  labor. 

(1)  Barter,  exchange,  merchantry,  commerce — 
as  business  methods  of  conducting  these 
forms  of  trade  changed,  various  phases  of 
arithmetic  developed.     (See  p.  261.) 

d.  Transportation  facilities  increased — {geography  de- 

veloped.) 

II.  Adjustments  to  the  material  world. 

A.  In  play,  manipulation  of  objects,  destruction,  etc.,  asking 

"What?"  "Why?"  "Wherefore?"  etc. 

B.  By  discovery,  exploration,  and  trial,  man  finds  nature  sup- 

plying his  simple  wants. 

1.  Food. 

a.  Native  nuts,  grains,  berries,  vegetables,  wild  ani- 

mals, etc. 

b.  Cultivated  grains,  fruit,  etc.     Stock  and  poultry 

raised  for  meat,  milk,  eggs,  etc. 

c.  Activities:    hunting,  fishing,  herding,  agriculture, 

stock-raising,  dairying. 

2.  Shelter. 

a.  Natural — caves,  treetops,  etc. 

b.  Slightly  transformed — skin  and  bark  huts,  log  and 

stone  houses,  tents,  etc. 

c.  Activities:  hunting,  lumbering,  quarrying,  mining. 

d.  Results — Family  life. 

3.  Clothing. 

a.  Vegetable  products,  skins,  etc. 

b.  Activities:  hunting,  dressing  skins,  simple  weav- 

ing, etc. 

C.  By  manipulation,  and  invention  or  construction,  man  changes 

the  forms  of  nature's  supplies. 
1.  Food — Illustrations  follow: 

a.  Flour,  puffed  grains,  etc.,  prepared. 

b.  Beverages  prepared  from  beans,  leaves,  berries. 


Analysis  of  Human  Adjustments.  205 

c.  Minerals  refined;  soda,  salt,  water. 

d.  Cookery  refined  into  an  art;  sanitation. 

e.  Animal  foods  preserved  in  many  ways. 

f.  Better  and  different  plant  and  animal  forms  devel- 

oped; horticulture  and  animal  husbandry. 

2.  Shelter — Illustrations: 

a.  Iron  changed  to  steel  for  strength  and  durability. 

b.  Lumber  used  for  veneers  and  other  fine  purposes. 

c.  Stone  crushed  and  made  into  concrete,  false  mar- 

ble, etc. 

3.  Clothing. 

a.  Cloth  manufacture. 

(1)   wool,  (2)  cotton,  (3)  linen,  including  all  the 
processes  necessary.     Hygiene. 

b.  Sewing,    designing;   and   all   the   arts   of   garment 

making  and,  manufacture. 
D.  By  organizing  facts  and  laws  or  principles  found  in  the 
simple  processes  above,  man  has  developed: 

1.  Great  industries. 

a.  Agricultural  industries. 

b.  Mining  industries. 

c.  Manufacturing  industries. 

d.  Commercial  industries. 

2.  Sciences. 

a.  Geography,  geology,  astronomy,  etc. 

b.  Botany,  and  related  sciences. 

c.  Zoology,  physiology,  and  related  sciences. 

d.  Physics,  chemistry,  etc. 

e.  Grammar,  philology,  etc. 

f.  Mathematics. 

III.  Adjustments  to  the  immaterial  world. 

A.  By  attempting  to  explain  the  mysteries  of  nature,  man 

developed — ■ 

1.  Power  of  thinking. 

2.  Power  of  imagination. 

3.  Mythology. 

B.  By  attempting  to  explain  man's  place  in  nature,  man  de- 

veloped— 
1.  Standards  of  appreciation  and  evaluation — 

a.  Of  things. 

b.  Of  relationships. 

(1)  Relative  values. 

(2)  Eternal    values — truth,    goodness,    beauty, 

holiness. 

C.  By  seeing  man's  relation  to  his  fellow  man,  the  race  has 

developed  history,  economics,  and  sociology — 

1.  The  family  protection  of  the  child  for  a  longer  and 

longer  period  of  infancy. 

2.  The  desire  that  the  youth  of  the  race  shall  be  taught 

what  will  quickly  make  them   better  individuals 
and  members  of  society. 


206  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

3.  The  desire  to  better  all  mankind — ■ 

a.  Socially. 

b.  Individually.       \  Hence  a  study  of  citizenship. 

c.  Economically.     J 

4.  The  feeling  of  brotherhood  of  all  mankind  (sociology). 

a.  Sympathy.  \  United  on    one   task,   although 

b.  Cooperation.        /      the  labor  is  divided. 

D.  By  trying  to  express  the  harmony  in  ideal  social  and  ma- 

terial relationships,  fine  art  is  developed — 

1.  Drawing,  painting,  sculpture,  architecture,  etc. 

2.  Music. 

3.  Literature  (including  the  drama). 

E.  By  attempting   to   solve   the  problem   of   man's   ultimate 

destiny,  men  have  evolved — 

1.  Philosophies  of  life. 

a.  Meaning  of  duty. 

b.  Use  of  leisure. 

c.  Self-realization. 

d.  Materialism — pragmatism 

e.  Idealism,  etc. 

2.  Religion. 

a.  Faith  the  keynote. 

b.  Forms  numerous. 


Hence,  ethics  or 
morals. 


Points  to  be  considered  in  the  selection  and  distribution 
of  elementary-school  subject-matter. 

The  preceding  analysis  shows  the  origin,  through  adjustment, 
of  every  subject  in  the  course  of  study.  Which  of  these  are  best 
fitted  for  use  in  mass-instruction,  which  need  developing  and  refin- 
ing to  meet  special  needs  of  a  given  community,  and  which  must  be 
subordinated  to  others  to  secure  highest  self-realization  through 
socialization,  remains  a  problem  for  each  locality  to  solve. 

The  general  principles  are  few;  namely: 

1.  The  subject-matter  must  further  one  or  more  of  the  eternal 
values,  which  are  only  larger  names  for  the  more  commonly  quoted 
fundamentals  of  character:  knowledge,  accuracy,  persistence,  hon- 
esty, obedience  to  law,  economy,  providence  or  foresight,  gener- 
osity, thoughtfulness  of  others,  sympathy,  faith,  appreciation  of 
beauty,  ability  to  stand  alone  in  times  of  stress,  and  the  will  to  do 
the  chosen  or  the  allotted  task.  Said  differently,  the  material 
chosen  must  perpetuate  and  further  the  experiences  which  the  race 
has  found,  is  finding,  and  will  find,  valuable  for  its  best  develop- 
ment. 

That  special  subjects  within  a  field  should  be  emphasized  is 
not  so  vital  as  that  all  fields  should,  for  the  sake  of  the  final  goal,  be 
given  their  proportion  of  attention. 

The  school  subjects  growing  out  of  and  fostering  social  adjust- 
ments are  English  and  Mathematics;  those  growing  largely  out  of 
material  adjustments  are  Science  and  Industry;  those  growing 
mainly  out  of  ideal  adjustments  are  Citizenship  and  Fine  Art. 
The  unity  of  the  three  worlds,  lying  in  one  plane,  interrelated  with 


Suggestions. — Course  for  all  Teachers.  207 

one  another,  and  all  growing  equally  from  life  and  ending  in  self- 
realization,  must  be  constantly  kept  in  mind  by  the  teacher,  so  that, 
for  example,  when  he  teaches  geography  he  will  see  in  it  social  and 
spiritual  relationships,  just  as  when  he  teaches  reading  there  will 
be  physical  and  ideal  adjustments  as  well  as  social.  The  youth  who 
wants  to  try  every  diverging  path  along  the  main  road  must  be 
held  to  knowing  on  what  road  he  is,  or  he  soon  becomes  lost  in  a 
bog  of  indecision,  in  a  maze  of  insurmountable  complexity;  he  gets 
only  isolated  bits,  and,  worse  still,  these  seem  to  disagree,  and  he 
may  be  led  so  far  from  the  original  road  as  never  to  get  back  even 
in  adulthood,  when  he  longs  to  do  so. 

2.  The  subject-matter  must  be  selected  and  distributed  to  fit  the 
pupils  to  be  instructed,  planned  in  a  broad  way  to  fit  the  psycho- 
logical stages  of  developing  childhood.  The  too-early  forcing  of 
adult  standards  upon  children,  or  the  holding  of  pupils  too  long 
on  a  plane  lower  than  they  are  qualified  to  reach,  are  equally  re- 
stricting to  progress  towards  highest  self-realization. 

8.  The  subject-matter  and  methods  of  work  must  be  chosen  to 
utilize  the  means  at  hand: 

a.  The  materials  chosen  must  be  such  as  are  available  in  a 
locality:  Problems  about  industries,  if  industrial  plants  can  be  vis- 
ited; study  of  farming,  if  farm  operations  can  be  observed;  nature 
study  of  park  trees  and  house-plants,  if  city  children  have  never 
had  a  glimpse  of  real  country;  and  "safety-first"  cautions  to  chil- 
dren who  are  exposed  to  undue  dangers  in  going  to  and  from  school. 

b.  The  subject-matter  must  fit  the  conditions  provided  for 
instruction:  A  three-hour  or  a  six-hour  day,  a  six-months'  or  a 
nine-months'  school,  few  or  many  supplementary  books,  poorly 
or  well-equipped  school-buildings  with  small  or  crowded  classes. 

c.  The  subject-matter  must  be  chosen  to  fit  the  special  ability 
of  the  teacher  (assuredly  his  general  ability  for  the  profession  of 
teaching  must  be  above  question):  Whether  he  has  particular  ar- 
tistic ability,  or  little;  whether  he  can  best  secure  accuracy,  per- 
sistence, and  independence,  from  history,  mathematics,  or  geog- 
raphy.    See  discussion  under  1  above. 

I.— SUGGESTIONS  TO  TEACHERS. 

A.— THIS  COURSE  OF  STUDY  FOR  ALL  TEACHERS. 

The  majority  of  state  courses  of  study  have  been  avowedly  prepared  for 
"rural"  or  "district"  teachers,  and  even  more  specifically  for  inexperienced  rural 
teachers,  so  that  one  has  grown  to  expect  a  state  course  of  study  to  be  useful 
only  in  country  schools;  but  the  Minnesota  course  of  study  has  been  prepared 
with  the  hope  of  serving  all  teachers. 

There  is  no  question  that  rural  teachers  should  have  had  first  consideration. 
Isolated  as  they  once  were,  missing  the  incentive  of  daily  companionship  and 
the  incidental  suggestions  arising  from  that  companionship,  receiving  infrequent 
and  often  short  visits  from  supervisory  officers,  rural  teachers  lacked  standards 
by  which  to  judge  the  efficiency  of  their  work,  and  consequently  each  rural  school 
became  an  individual  unit — good  or  poor  according  to  the  individual  teacher. 


208  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

State  Superintendents  were  wise  in  bending  their  earliest  energies  to  standardiz- 
ing the  work  of  these  isolated  schools,  and  in  making  so  nearly  uniform  a  course 
of  study  as  to  better  all  schools.  Minnesotans  have  reason  to  be  proud  that 
their  state  leads  in  making  rural  schools  as  good  as  town  schools.  Through 
state  inspectors;  through  better-planned  county  supervision,  institutes,  and  con- 
ventions; through  high-school  training  departments,  with  a  famous  leader  in 
rural  education  at  their  head;  through  the  Agricultural  College  and  normal 
schools;  and  through  other  agencies;  rural  teachers  in  Minnesota  are  today  re- 
ceiving as  much  help  as  do  the  majority  of  urban  teachers,  excluding,  of  course 
those  in  our  very  largest  cities.  It  therefore  seemed  only  fair  that  a  state  course 
of  study  issued  during  this  current  period  of  progress,  should  help  all  teachers 
of  the  state  and  not  just  one  class. 

According  to  length  of  service,  there  are  three  general  classes  of  good  teachers 
(the  bad  are  not  considered,  since  they  are  soon  eliminated  by  interested  school 
boards) : 

The  first  class  consists  of  beginning  teachers,  whether  rural  or  urban,  who  are 
concerned  most  with  just  how  to  go  about  this  new  work  and  who  are  naturally, 
and  hence  properly,  open-eyed  mainly  to  catchy  devices  or  "tricks  of  the  trade." 

Any  one  who  visits  a  great  number  of  schools  and  stays  long  enough  to  dis- 
cover the  real  attitude  of  teachers  to  their  problem,  is  invariably  impressed  with 
their  evident  consecration  of  self  to  a  great  work.  So  few  teachers  are  dishonest, 
hypocritical,  selfish,  or  given  to  mere  eye-service,  that  one  who  is,  is  at  once 
called  unnatural.  For  the  untrained  teacher  who  approaches  his  work  with  a 
real  desire  to  do  his  best  for  the  children,  this  course  of  study  provides  specific 
help  in  the  way  of  distributed  subject-matter,  suggestive  lesson  plans  for  the 
various  types  of  teaching,  and  definite  devices  for  seat-work,  drill  lessons,  and 
general  management. 

The  second  class  consists  of  teachers  of  from  two  to  four  years'  experience,  who 
have  satisfactorily  learned  the  external  details  of  school-room  management,  and 
who  now  crave  something  more  fundamental. 

Such  teachers  are  recommended  to  begin  reorganizing  the  subject-matter 
being  taught,  for,  in  making  this  reorganization,  teachers  see  relationships  be- 
tween topics  and  subjects  that,  when  pointed  out  to  pupils,  arouse  more  enthu- 
siasm for  study  than  did  any  extraneous  devices  ever  employed.  One  subject  a 
year,  or,  at  most,  two,  will  be  all  a  teacher  can  do  well  while  keeping  up  the 
necessary  work  in  other  branches.  The  selection  of  a  topic  on  which  to  begin 
broad  study  must  depend  on  the  teacher's  interests  or  feeling  of  need,  or  upon 
what  the  school  most  requires.  If  no  one  in  the  building,  or  in  a  particular  grade 
is  an  authority  on  geography,  history,  composition,  vocational  guidance,  moral 
training,  or  any  one  subject,  the  teacher  will  do  well  to  become  such  an  authority. 
It  is  hoped  that  such  teachers  will  find  help  in  at  least  three  places  in  this  Man- 
ual, namely:  (1)  In  the  basis  for  the  course;  (2)  in  the  specific  introduction  to 
each  school  subject;  and  (3)  in  several  sections  of  this  second  half  of  the  book 
(the  Manual). 

The  third  group  consists  of  teachers  of  wider  experience  who  begin  to  think 
more  of  individual  pupils  than  of  either  device  or  organization  of  subject-matter- 
Such  teachers  want  to  know  the  whole  field  of  methods  so  that  they  may  wisely 
select  the  best  method  for  each  child.  Psychology  and  pedagogy  are  their  aids. 
Devices  will  still  be  used,  as  they  should  be,  and  subject-matter  is  important, 
but  both  become  temporary  means  to  an  end,  and  are  given  their  correct  evalua- 
tion. 


Suggestions. — Beginners.  209 

There  is  an  old  legend  of  how  different  birds  learned  to  build  their  nests. 
It  tells  how,  while  the  dove  was  teaching  the  art  to  all,  one  bird  after  the  other 
flew  off  at  a  different  stage  of  the  process,  thinking  that  she  knew  all  about  nest 
building.  Only  the  few  who  had  the  patience  or  insight  to  remain  for  the  last 
step  became  fine  builders.  Many  teachers  leave  their  profession  having  seen 
only  its  earlier  stages;  the  efficient,  experienced  teacher,  who  stays  to  take  the 
last  step,  wants  to  get  the  relation  of  the  field  of  education  to  all  of  life,  to  see 
how  the  specialized  organ  of  education — school — ever  grew  up,  what  its  original 
function  was,  what  changes  in  social  conditions  have  affected  that  primary  func- 
tion, and  whether  schools  are  today  meeting  their  responsibilities.  That  is,  the 
teacher  who  has  reached  this  stage  of  professional  growth  is  getting  at  funda- 
mental principles  of  life,  is  forming  a  philosophy  of  education  that  pushes  meth- 
ods, as  well  as  devices  and  subject-matter,  back  to  a  position  of  means  to  an  end. 
Such  teachers  will  study  the  world's  great  books,  and  the  world's  great  teachers 
in  every  walk  of  life  as  well  as  in  the  school-room.  They  will  read  and  reread 
this  entire  course  of  study,  exercising  initiative,  supplementing  the  thought,  and 
suggesting  changes  that  will  better  it. 

This  course  of  study  was  intentionally  made  to  be  studied.  Were  it  easy 
enough  to  permit  of  being  read  by  him  who  runs,  teachers  could  not  turn  to  it 
year  after  year,  as  they  must,  with  any  degree  of  interest.  It  was  meant  to 
foster — not  kill — initiative,  and  each  succeeding  year  the  course  should  be  less 
mechanically  followed  by  every  teacher  who  uses  it.  It  must  be  adapted  in 
every  community  to  local  needs  and  conditions.  Superintendent  Schulz  and  the 
educational  leaders  who  assist  him  will  be  ever  ready  to  offer  advice  on  adapta- 
tions of  the  course  of  study  to  individual  situations.  They  will  also  welcome 
questions  and  criticisms  of  every  sort. 

B.— SUGGESTIONS  TO  SPECIAL  GROUPS  OF  TEACHERS. 

1.— TO  BEGINNERS. 

Inexperienced  teachers  want  to  know  "everything,"  but  a  study  of  their  in- 
quiries proves  that  they  want  most  to  know  what  can  be  done  to  prepare  for  the 
first  week,  and  especially  what  to  do  the  first  day  of  school. 

As  soon  as  possible  the  teacher  should  learn  all  he  can  about  the  school  and 
the  community;  how  he  is  likely  to  be  situated  if  boarding,  and  everything  which 
will  help  him  to  know  what  to  carry  with  him.  He  should  study  this  course  of 
study,  and  if  obtainable,  read  the  text-books  to  be  used,  planning  general  assign- 
ments of  lessons  so  as  to  know  what  materials  to  provide.  A  quantity  of  seat- 
work  must  be  made  if  the  teaching  is  to  be  done  in  lower  grades  or  in  a  rural 
school,  and  a  note-book  of  general  assignments  if  in  upper  grades.  The  former 
should  all  be  put  into  plainly  labeled  boxes  or  envelopes,  so  as  to  be  economically 
handled.     (See  pp.  2S3-292.) 

The  prospective  teacher  should  make  pencil-cases  and  fill  with  at  least  two 
dozen  sharpened  pencils;  make  (or  buy)  a  pocket-like  seating-chart,*  and  have 
two  or  three  sets  of  cards  ready  to  use  in  it.  Having  a  large  number  of  cards  to 
fit  the  seating-chart  pockets,  the  teacher  can,  on  the  first  day  of  school,  have 
each  child  who  is  old  enough  to  do  so  write  his  name  on  two  of  them — one  to  be 
put  into  a  pocket  corresponding  to  his  seat  and  the  other  to  lie  on  his  desk.  The 
child's  name  and  face  can  thus  be  associated,  whether  the  teacher  is  at  his  desk 
or  walking  about  the  room.     For  the  children  too  young  to  write,  the  teacher 

*  Called  the  "Dorothy"  seating-plan  in  the  Thomas   Charles  catalog. 


210  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

must  make  the  cards.  This  seating  chart  will  last  all  year,  cards  being  easily 
shifted  as  children's  seats  are  changed. 

The  teacher  should  plan  a  temporary  program  for  the  first  day  and  then  see 
that  there  is  some  definite  work  to  be  done  by  each  division  that  will  need  to 
study;  learn  to  tell  several  stories  well,  and  make  a  specialty  of  at  least  one — 
his  best — telling  it  almost  daily  all  summer,  until  he  feels  that  he  can  tell  it  in 
his  sleep;  know  well  several  songs  suited  to  the  pupils  to  be  taught  and  be  able  to 
teach  them  by  rote;  collect  good  pictures,  mounting  some  that  will  need  to  be 
handled  often,  and  label  the  envelopes  in  which  are  pictures  for  "geography," 
"history,"  "language,"  "Thanksgiving  Day,"  etc. 

The  teacher  must  have  at  tongue's  end  a  number  of  easily  explained  and  easily 
played  games,  some  suitable  for  the  playground  and  some  for  the  schoolroom. 
He  should  also  have  one  or  more  good  books  from  which  to  begin  to  read,  reading 
perhaps  the  last  ten  minutes  so  that  pupils  look  forward  to  the  next  day's  school. 
(See  list  of  "Books  to  Read  Aloud,"  by  Miss  Wilson,  Department  of  Education.) 

If  not  already  known,  the  teacher  must  find  out  how  to  keep  the  school  rec- 
ords, how  to  find  average  daily  attendance  as  well  as  other  averages  required  in 
the  reports  to  City  or  County  Superintendent. 

All  the  above  things  can  be  prepared  long  before  school  opens.  There  still 
remains  the  need  of  going  to  the  school  itself  long  enough  before  the  first  day  to 
be  sure  that  everything  within  the  teacher's  province  to  control  will  be  in  order, 
and  to  secure  from  the  clerk  of  the  district  school  or  from  the  city  principal,  the 
classification,  attendance,  and  library  registers  left  by  the  last  teacher.  In  case 
the  last  teacher,  whose  duty  it  was  to  do  so,  has  not  left  things  in  perfect  order 
the  new  teacher  should  put  into  clean  boxes,  well  arranged  and  labeled,  all  sup- 
plies and  materials  worth  using.  Books  should  be  dusted,  and  mended  if  worth 
mending,  before  being  recorded;  or,  if  past  mending,  discarded.  Maps  should 
be  examined,  mended  if  necessary,  and  checked  to  see  whether  all  that  will  be 
needed  are  available.  If  new  window  shades,  fresh  calsomining,  scrubbing,  re- 
placed window  panes,  or  other  repairs,  are  needed,  or  if  the  school  is  a  primary 
school  and  has  not  the  full  set  of  supplies  required  by  law,  the  teacher  should 
courteously  ask  whether  they  may  be  bought  or  attended  to  at  once.  If  the 
teacher  shows  a  pride  in  the  appearance  of  the  school,  he  will  usually  be  met 
more  than  half  way  by  the  principal,  superintendent,  or  directors. 

On  the  Saturday  before  school  opens,  if  not  before,  cupboards  and  the  teach- 
er's desk  should  be  cleaned  out,  fresh  papers  put  in  the  drawers  and  on  shelves, 
and  materials  needed  for  the  first  day  put  into  accessible  places.  The  temporary 
program  should  be  written  on  the  blackboard,  or  on  a  large  card  to  be  hung  up. 
Words  to  a  song  and  some  assignments  can  be  written  on  the  blackboard,  and  the 
room  can  be  given  an  air  of  "ready  for  work,"  of  neatness  and  cheerfulness.  In 
the  afternoon,  the  teachers  should  "settle"  himself  in  his  home  for  the  year,  put- 
ting things  in  such  order  that  Monday  night  can  be  spent  on  school  work  with- 
out interruption.  Sunday,  at  church,  the  teacher  is  likely  to  meet  some  of  his  pu- 
pils or  their  parents,  and  can  make  a  good  start  by  being  "friendly"  yet  dignified. 

On  the  first  day  the  teacher  will  do  well  to  see  that  no  time  is  wasted,  though 
some  must  necessarily  be  taken  for  getting  pupils'  names,  passing  supplies,  etc. 
The  law  demands  an  accurate  account  of  attendance,  so,  before  noon,  the  teacher 
must  have  a  complete  list  of  names;  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  take  an  hour  to 
get  this.  Before  nine  o'clock,  the  teacher,  having  gone  early  to  school  that  day, 
may  have  learned  several  names  and  have  them  put  into  the  seating-chart.  Others 
can  be  obtained  gradually,  as  different  classes  are  called  or  seat-work  is  inspected. 


Suggestions. — Beginners.  211 

If  pupils  are  old  enough  to  do  so,  they  may  write  their  own  names  on  the  seating- 
cards.  Within  a  few  days  the  teacher  may  secure  all  other  information  required 
for  reports,  such  as  children's  ages,  nationality,  physical  condition,  etc.  The 
alphabetically  arranged  names  should  not  be  written  in  the  register  for  about  a 
week,  to  make  su-re  there  will  be  no  more  changes. 

If  the  school  furnishes  books,  writing  materials,  etc.,  the  teacher  need  not 
have  all  passed  at  once,  but  may  well  spend  two  or  three  days  in  their  gradual 
distribution,  as  needed.  Immediately  after  a  brief  and  dignified  opening  exer- 
cise, at  which  time  a  "speech"  from  the  teacher  is  not  at  all  essential,  each  class 
may  be  given  something  very  definite  to  do.  (See  pp.  2S3-292.)  A  small 
group  may  be  tested  in  some  subject  and  then  set  a  task  to  do,  while  another 
group  is  tested.  If  the  school  consists  of  but  a  single  grade,  all  may  recite  and 
then  study,  the  teacher  thus  having  an  opportunity  to  show  pupils  how  he 
wants  work  done,  and  to  learn  how  independent  and  capable  the  pupils  are. 

After  a  vacation  of  unrestricted  movement,  younger  pupils  may  find  long 
sitting  tiresome.  It  is  therefore  wise  to  see  that  children's  positions  are  fre- 
quently changed — by  passing  to  blackboard  or  to  recitation-benches,  by  stand- 
ing for  some  short  recitation,  by  marching  for  two  minutes,  or  playing  some 
game  like  "stage  coach"  or  "fruit  basket,"  or  by  standing  to  sing. 

The  teacher  needs  to  have  high  ideals  of  order,  and  can  more  easily  relax 
(after  too  strict  discipline  the  first  day)  than  later  secure  the  ideal  if  the  first  day's 
standards  have  been  too  low.  A  happy  medium  is  best,  but,  to  repeat,  it  is 
better  to  err  on  the  side  of  rigidity  than  of  leniency.     (See  pp.  295-299.) 

The  first  day  will  have  been  a  success  if  the  pupils  feel  (1)  an  interest  in 
school,  (2)  a  desire  to  cooperate  with  the  teacher  in  making  the  machinery  of 
school  move  smoothly,  (3)  if  they  have  had  their  curiosity,  wonder,  or  thirst  for 
knowledge  aroused,  and  (4)  if  the  day  has  been  well  spent,  leaving  a  feeling  of 
something  accomplished. 

For  comparison  later,  a  teacher  will  wish  to  make  a  record  of  various  abilities 
of  each  child  as  shown  during  the  first  week.  For  example,  every  child  old  enough 
to  do  so  should  copy  some  stanza  or  paragraph  in  his  best  penmanship,  dating 
the  sheet  and  recording  the  exact  number  of  minutes  spent  on  the  copy.  Some 
of  the  standard  tests  (see  pp.  292-295)  suited  to  the  age  of  the  pupils  to  be  taught 
should  be  given  and  the  records  of  results  kept,  with  dates.  The  tests  in  spell- 
ing and  arithmetic  are  especially  easy  and  make  one  good  sort  of  first-day  seat- 
work.  Reading,  language,  and  composition  tests,  are  not  so  easily  graded,  but 
can  be  given. 

A  young  teacher,  Miss  Hazel  Wheeler,  made  the  excellent  suggestion  that 
for  first-day  composition  work  in  an  upper  grade,  the  teacher  might  ask  the 
pupils  to  list  all  the  interesting  things  about  town  about  which  they  would  like 
their  new  teacher  to  know.  At  recitation  time  these  topics  could  be  discussed 
briefly,  very  large  subtopics  planned,  and  the  several  subjects  (or  only  one,  if 
thought  best)  assigned  to  members  of  the  class  to  write  so  well  about  that  the 
teacher  would  feel  impelled  to  visit  the  place  of  interest. 

Care  of  school  property  should  be  begun  the  first  day  and  unostentatiously 
kept  up  all  year.  Books  should  be  covered.  The  teacher  will  need  for  the  fall 
flowers  two  or  three  inexpensive  but  good-looking  baskets  or  vases,  with  neat 
squares  of  glass  to  lie  under  them;  a  good  dust-cloth;  several  cloths  for  sopping 
spilled  water  or  ink,  perhaps;  a  bundle  of  clean  newspapers  for  laying  on  the 
desks  during  any  lesson  that  may  soil  or  scratch  the  desks;  twine  or  cord;  as  well 
as  the  several  articles  named  on  pp.  279-283,  283-292,  292-295. 


212  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

2.— TO  TEACHERS  OF  EXPERIENCE. 

Experienced  teachers  will,  of  course,  know  the  routine  of  the  first  day  and 
week,  and  will  avoid  many  of  the  difficulties  met  by  beginning  teachers.  They 
must,  however,  do  the  same  general  things,  but  will  do  them  more  efficiently, 
with  greater  ease,  and  without  any  loss  of  time.  More  classes  can  be  heard; 
more  suitable  assignments  of  work  and  better  rest  exercises  will  be  given.  The 
note-book  in  which  the  teacher  plans  to  keep  (for  his  own  benefit  only)  charac- 
teristics of  individual  pupils,  will  show  more  discriminating  notes  than  a  young 
teacher  can  make.  On  different  pages  may  be  found,  for  example:  Ready  to 
offer  service,  but  not  persevering  if  task  is  hard.  Strong  in  history.  Very  weak  in 
penmanship  and  spelling — must  be  helped  daily.  Grows  too  tired  before  day  is 
over — Why? — Sleep?— Food? — Work  at  home?  Liked  by  companions  on  the  play- 
ground. Timid.  Enunciation  slovenly.  Such  rapid  diagnoses  of  the  children 
will  definitely  assist  in  making  the  social  atmosphere  good,  for  a  teacher  who 
understands  will  not  seat  near  together  the  domineering  boy  and  the  one  most 
easily  intimidated;  nor  the  highly  imitative  child  next  to  one  who  is  defiant, 
disrespectful,  ill-mannered,  or  profane;  nor  will  he  make  the  child  who  is  natur- 
ally orderly  sit  close  to  one  who  scatters  things  about  or  moves  constantly,  thus 
spilling  the  ink  in  the  well  of  the  seat  behind,  or  shaking  out  books,  etc.  Chil- 
dren with  sight  or  hearing  defects  must  be  made  as  comfortable  as  possible  near 
the  front  of  the  room. 

Experienced  teachers  soon  begin  to  ask  one  of  two  questions:  How  can  I 
earn  more?  or,  How  can  I  grow  more?  Since  to  earn  more  one  must  grow  more, 
and  since  growth  is  almost  always  appreciated  by  better  salary,  the  questions 
have  a  common  answer:  Look  for  basal  principles,  suggestions  for  using  indi- 
viduality, and  for  means  of  unifying  instruction.  Seek  to  approach  the  new 
year's  work  with  broader  vision,  obtained  by  reading  between  the  lines  of  the 
course  of  study,  studying  many  of  the  suggested  books  of  reference,  challenging 
fresh  methods  and  devices  in  the  light  of  both  basal  principle  and  past  experience, 
and  determine  to  make  the  new  year  one  of  richness  for  the  pupils.  Frequently 
challenge  what  is  to  be  taught  in  the  light  of  why  it  ever  came  to  be  selected  as 
a  bit  of  school  subject-matter,  and  whether  it  is  still  valuable.  This  makes  even 
old  subject-matter  and  methods  of  work  alive.  No  teacher  can  afford  to  miss 
the  joy  that  comes  from  having  personally  defended  the  worth  of  the  lesson  to 
be  taught. 

In  December,  1915,  Mr.  Geo.  F.  Howard,  of  the  State  University,  told  four 
hundred  normal-school  students  that  they  needed  just  six  things  to  become  good 
teachers.  Since  these  six  points  are  as  valuable  for  experienced  as  for  inexperi- 
enced teachers,  they  are  here  given:  (1)  Know  your  subject-matter;  make  thor- 
ough preparation  for  the  lessons  to  be  taught.  (2)  Possess  a  true  enthusiasm 
for  the  work  of  teaching.  (.3)  Be  interested  in  children.  (4)  Be  interesting  to 
children.  (5)  Be  progressive.  (6)  Get  a  vision,  for  "where  there  is  no  vision 
the  people  perish." 

3.— TO  RURAL  TEACHERS  AND  TO  TEACHERS  OF  SEVERAL  GRADES 

IN  ONE  ROOM. 

(Read  the  suggestions  to  Beginning  Teachers).  Rural  teachers  need  to  be, 
and  many  of  them  are  coming  to  be,  the  best-educated  and  the  best  equipped 
teachers  in  the  state — more  like  the  school-master  described  by  Whittier  in  his 
"Snowbound,"  who — 


Suggestions. — Rural  Teachers.  213 

"Sang  songs,  and  told  [the  children)  what  befalls 
In  classic  Dartmouth's  college  halls. 
[Who]  early  gained  the  power  to  pay 
His  cheerful,  self-reliant  way; 
Could  doff  at  ease  his  scholar's  gown" 
To  do  a  dozen  other  things  and  feel  no  shame; 
Who  could  learn  of  life  in  every  place 
And  turn  that  knowledge  to  account. 
"Happy  the  snow-locked  homes  wherein 
He  tuned  his  merry  violin, 
Or  played  the  athlete  in  the  barn, 
Or  held  the  good  dame's  winding  yarn, 
Or  mirth-provoking  versions  told 
Of  classic  legends  rare  and  old. 
Wherein  the  scenes  of  Greece  and  Rome 
Had  all  the  commonplace  of  home. 

[A  rare  accomplishment 
Large  brained,  clear-eyed, — of  such  as  he" 
May  teachers  of  all  children  be! 

Besides  needing  this  fund  of  general  information,  and  the  ability  to  fit  into 
varied  situations,  rural  teachers  have  to  be  big  enough  in  personality  to  treat 
sympathetically  the  five-year-old  child  whose  mother  "can't  keep  her  at  home 
when  she  sees  the  other  children  go  to  school,"  and  yet  understand  the  ambi- 
tions and  reticence  of  the  biggest  boy  in  school.  They  must  usually  do  their 
own  janitor  work,  and  often  be  the  school  carpenter,  plumber,  decorator,  and 
tinker.  They  have  to  be  superior  managers  to  do  everything  that  it  is  necessary 
to  do  (to  say  nothing  of  other  things  that  are  desired)  during  the  too-short  day. 
(See  pp.  215-224.)  They  have  to  plan  more  seat-work  for  the  younger  pupils  and 
more  educative  assignments  for  older  pupils  than  do  any  teachers  of  single  grades. 
(See  pp.  2S3-292.)  But!  the  joy  of  making  school  just  a  larger  home! — with  big 
"brothers"  and  "sisters"  helping  the  younger  ones  and  thus  learning  thoughtful- 
ness  of  others,  sympathy,  gentleness,  and  the  joy  of  service! — with  younger 
pupils  learning  many  things  from  just  hearing  the  older  ones  recite;  all  learning 
to  work  independently,  to  take  care  of  themselves  through  longer  periods  of  in- 
action than  is  necessary  in  a  school  of  one  grade!  What  an  opportunity  for 
securing  group  effort  and  generosity  of  spirit  towards,  and  appreciation  of,  the 
youngest  helper  and  his  crude  results.  How  eager  the  children  are  to  learn,  if 
only  the  teacher  has  something  worth  while  to  give.  They  stand  at  the  foot  of 
the  mountain  with  the  world  at  their  feet,  and  the  teacher  has  only  to  help  them 
climb  the  mountain  that  they  may  get  ever  wider  and  wider  views  of  this  won- 
derful world  and  the  people  in  it.     (See  suggestions  to  other  groups  of  teachers.) 

The  teacher's  noon  hour  with  the  children  gives  him  rich  opportunities  to 
lead  one  child  to  copy  an  older  one,  or  to  help  the  older  boy  keep  up  to  hisbest 
because  he  is  some  younger  boy's  hero.  If  the  children  can  be  induced  to  eat 
together  around  an  improvised  table,  what  fun  can  be  had  with  riddles,  anec- 
dotes, and  repartee;  what  practical  lessons  can  be  given  in  good  manners  and  in 
sanitation.  For  the  former,  at  least,  many  a  child  will  in  later  life  be  grateful. 
Is  this  hard?  Of  course  it  is;  but  the  joy  of  conquering  hard  things  is  the  finest 
joy  in  life! 

Visitors  are  so  rare  in  rural  schools  that  some  teachers  forget  to  teach  pupils 
the  courteous  attitude  of  hosts.  If,  in  spite  of  the  teachers'  efforts  to  induce 
patrons  to  come  to  school,  few  visitors  appear,  children  may  be  taught  what 
should  be  done  through  several  means.  The  teacher  may  appoint  a  child  to 
teach  some  class  while  he  plays  the  visitor's  part,  noting  that  all  pupils  are  at- 


214  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

tentive  to  their  individual  tasks  and  yet  thoughtful  of  the  guest;  getting  him  a 
chair;  handing  him  a  book;  relieving  him  of  the  book  when  the  need  for  it  is  past, 
etc.  The  teacher  may  make  the  agreement  with  some  older  girl  that  when  she 
asks  to  leave  the  room  she  will  knock  and  be  received  as  a  visitor.  The  teacher 
then  plays  the  courteous  host,  telling  the  visitor  what  is  being  done,  asking  what 
she  particularly  desires  to  see  or  hear,  and,  if  possible,  changing  the  program 
slightly  to  gratify  the  wish.  Children  should  take  pride  in  reciting  as  for  a  real 
visitor. 

Such  dramatization  should  be  followed  by  free  discussion  of  the  pupils'  be- 
havior— where  it  was  good,  where  deficient,  how  it  could  be  bettered,  etc.  Again, 
the  teacher  may  tell  or  read  stories  in  which  pupils  behave  well  or  badly  in  the 
presence  of  visitors.  He  may  also  frequently  refer  to  conduct  as  desirable  (or 
undesirable)  from  the  standpoint  of  hosts.  Such  training  gives  pupils  a  notion 
of  what  is  expected  of  them,  and,  after  the  first  real  visitor  has  come  and  gone, 
they  may  discuss  with  the  teacher  such  new  points  of  behavior  as  then  seem 
necessary. 

4.— TO  GRADE  AND  DEPARTMENTAL  TEACHERS. 

(Read  suggestions  to  Experienced  Teachers.)  Though  grade  teachers  have 
some  difficulties  peculiarly  their  own,  they  have  great  opportunities  for  profes- 
sional growth.  The  advantages  of  conferring  with  one  another  and  of  having 
the  advice  and  criticism  of  superintendents,  principals,  and  special  supervisors, 
make  for  surer  and  more  rapid  growth  than  can  be  attained  by  any  one  unaided. 
Although  most  teachers  recognize  the  advantages,  a  few  are  not  always  eager  to 
pay  for  them  in  the  required  hard  work  to  meet  standards  set.  They  do  not 
realize  that  such  hard  work  will  bring  its  own  reward  in  broader  culture,  wider 
influence,  greater  executive  ability,  or  truer  vision,  nor  that  the  supervisor's  task 
is  also  difficult  and  often  thankless.  Occasionally  they  fail  in  loyalty  and  sym- 
pathy, pulling  back  on  the  load  instead  of  pushing  it.  They  need  to  remember 
that  superintendents  and  supervisors  are  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the  whole 
system,  including  equipment,  method  of  procedure,  pupils,  and  teachers,  alike. 
Reports  or  tests  which  are  required  to  secure  true  measures  of  efficiency  should 
be  honestly,  intelligently,  and  loyally  administered  by  the  teachers  concerned. 
Perhaps  a  thoughtful  reading  of  "The  Message  to  Garcia"  will  help  these  few 
teachers  to  stand  by  their  supervisors  in  their  efforts  to  make  the  local  school 
realize  the  function  for  which  it  was  organized. 

Departmental  teachers,  being  specialists  as  they  are  in  certain  fields,  should 
study  the  bases  given  for  their  subjects,  reporting  their  soundness  and  practi- 
cality to  all  concerned  in  the  success  of  this  course  of  study. 

5— TO    HIGH-    AND    NORMAL-SCHOOL    TRAINING    TEACHERS. 

To  this  group  the  suggestion  is  made  that  the  course  of  study  be  used  as  a 
text-book  with  student  teachers.  As  with  other  text-books,  parts  should  be 
slighted  and  other  parts  emphasized.  Class  discussion  will  clear  up  some  points; 
others  must  be  explained  by  the  training  teachers.  Still  others  must  be  expanded 
and  supplemented  by  reference  reading.  Students  need  to  learn  how  to  use  a 
course  of  study,  and  especially  how  to  adapt  the  distribution  of  subject-matter 
to  local  conditions  which  they  may  meet  as  beginning  teachers. 

Seat-work  and  drills  prepared  in  advance  can  be  criticized,  while  tests  may  be 
administered  until  students  lose  their  dread  of  the  technicalities  of  tests  and  ap- 
preciate their  value  in  teaching. 


Time  Allotment. — Subject-Matter.  215 

6— TO  SUPERINTENDENTS,   PRINCIPALS,  AND   SUPERVISORS. 

As  superintendents  first  urged  upon  the  M.  E.  A.,  through  their  appointment 
of  the  committee  which  prepared  Bulletin  No.  51,  the  need  of  a  new  state  course 
of  study,  so  they  can  do  most  towards  evaluating  this  result. 

If  they  will  "try  out"  the  course  with  their  teachers,  helping  the  state  de- 
partment to  find  what  in  it  is  wheat  and  what  chaff,  they  will  be  furthering  the 
cause  of  education  in  Minnesota. 

Superintendents  of  cities  which  have  no  present  course  of  study  can  help  by 
using  this  as  a  basis,  noting  what  adaptations  have  to  be  made  and  reporting 
results  and  opinions  to  those  interested. 

Superintendents  of  cities  already  using  local  courses  of  study  can  help  by 
asking  teachers,  in  meetings  assembled,  to  discuss  divergent  principles  and  prac- 
tices of  the  two  courses  and  to  offer  criticisms  to  guide  in  the  revision  which  must 
necessarily  be  made  in  a  very  few  years.  To  facilitate  full  returns  from  teachers, 
the  superintendent  might  mimeograph  blank  reports  calling  for  sections  lfked, 
points  not  clear,  features  most  helpful,  etc.  Again,  on  his  visits,  the  superin- 
tendent may  note  what  the  teachers  find  obscure  or  ambiguous;  what  suggestions 
are  impractical;  and  what  lines  need  more  emphasis. 

If  superintendents  could  also  find  time  to  discuss  the  course  of  study  among 
themselves,  or  at  institutes  and  conventions,  the  result  would  without  doubt 
propagate  greater  discrimination  in  values  and  larger  professional  cooperation. 

II.— TIME  ALLOTMENT  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER 
AND  PROGRAM    MAKING. 

A.— TIME  ALLOTMENT  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER. 

A  careful  study  of  the  evaluation  of  subject-matter  as  indicated  in  courses  of 
study  and  in  time  allotments  on  programs  of  different  states  and  cities,  shows  that 
at  present  there  is  little  agreement.  After  reaching  this  conclusion,  the  writer 
found  it  verified  by  the  more  scientific  report  of  Mr.  Henry  W.  Holmes,*  in  which 
he  discusses  briefly  the  causes  of  such  divergence  of  opinion,  and  the  need  of  in- 
vestigation which  will  remedy  the  matter. 

Some  of  the  causes  given  are:  Differing  lengths  of  the  school  year;  differing 
needs  of  various  school  populations;  different  demands  from  the  public  as  to 
what  shall  be  done,  which  subjects  are  "essential,"  and  which  are  "fads";  differ- 
ing opinions  as  to  the  time  necessary  for  the  achievement  of  certain  results,  or 
as  to  methods  which  are  wisest  to  employ;  and  disagreement  as  to  what  shall  be 
included  in  a  subject  as  defined. 

Before  a  scientific  distribution  of  subject-matter  can  be  made,  Mr.  Holmes 
feels  that  we  need:  (1)  A  very  careful  report  on  the  actual  hours  spent  in  recit- 
ing upon,  pondering,  studying,  and  using,  a  bit  of  subject-matter;  (2)  clearly 
understood  aims  of  school  work  or  of  education;  (3)  agreement  upon  definitions 
of  subjects,  with  perhaps  new  names  to  decrease  the  complexity;  (4)  limiting  the 
scope  of  school  subjects  (now  being  done  by  students  of  "minimum  essentials"); 
and  (5)  settling  upon  some  standards  of  achievement  for  each  grade  in  school 
(also  in  process  of  preparation;  see  pp.  292-295).  Then  may  we  know  how 
much  time  should  be  given  a  subject! 

*  The  Fourteenth  Year  Book  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I. 


216 


Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 
SUGGESTED    TIME   DISTRIBUTION  FOR 


Grade 


Subjects 


English — Reading  (and  Literature) 

Language  and  Comp.  (and  Literature). 

Grammar 

Penmanship 

Phonics  and  Dictionary  work 

Spelling 

Arithmetic  (and  Thrift) 


I       II      III     IV       V      VI    VII    VIII     11 


o  a 


rt  o  »0 
l-l       o 


'■ss 


Science — Geography 

Nature  Study  and  Elementary  Science. 
Physiology  and  Hygiene 


Physical  Exercise,  etc. 


Industry — Industry — General 

Sewing  or  Manual  Training 

Cookery  or  Manual  Training 

Vocational  Guidance  (and  Thrift). 


How  to  Study  (Special  effort). 


Citizenship — History,  Civics,  Current  Events.  .  .  . 
Moral  Training  (with  some  literature) 

Fine  Art — Music 

Drawing  and  related  subjects 

Literature — used  as  a  means  in  other  sub- 
jects hence  no  special  time  allotted 
to  it. 


10 


10 


10 


Extra  recesses  or  play  periods,  using  time  gained 
from  Arithmetic,  etc 

Regular  recesses  and  necessary  time  for  assembling 
and  dismissing,  and  for  general  exercises  at 
opening  and  closing 


30 


30 


30 


30 


30 


30 


L0 


30 


40 


30 


Total  330  minutes. 


1|  Rural  for  all  classes.     See  Note  2. 
*30  for  one-half  year. 

Note  1. — This  distribution  must  be  varied  to  suit  local  needs;  more  or  less  of  any  one  subject  as 
demanded;  use  of  eighth-grade  spelling  and  penmanship  time  for  how  to  study,  or,  for  arithmetic  the  whole 
year  instead  of  the  half  year  as  indicated  (if  penmanship  and  spelling  have  been  conquered  by  eighth 
grade);  part  of  the  noon  or  recreation  time  for  industrial  subjects  if  necessary;  supervised  play  at  recesses 
and  noons  in  place  of  scheduled  physical  training,  etc. 


At  this  juncture  no  one  wishes  to  make  a  time  allotment  except  as  a  mere 
point  of  departure,  but  if  we  agree  upon  our  aim  and  upon  our  meaning  for 
certain  subjects,  and  if  we  accept  the  present  work  of  specialists  on  minimum 
essentials  and  standards  of  efficiency  as  guides,  we  can,  for  our  own  state  at 
least,  make  a  suggestive  and  tentative  time  allotment,  with  the  hope  that  every 
teacher  will  make  such  changes  as  the  conditions  of  his  work  demand.  The  greater 
the  number  of  teachers  who  report  on  the  values  and  the  faults  of  this  distribu- 
tion, the  surer  will  Minnesota  take  a  leading  place  in  this  scientific  movement. 
(Please  report!) 

Replies  to  requests  made  of  students  from  all  parts  of  Minnesota  as  to  the 
length  of  a  school  day  in  their  localities  show  that  a  five-  to  a  five-  and-  one-half- 
hour  day  is  more  general  than  any  other.  Many  private  schools  have  only 
morning  sessions  (three  hours),  and  a  few  city  schools  have  pupils  come  in  two 
relays,  each  group  receiving  instruction  for  about  three  hours;  but  most  public 
schools  have  two  sessions  of  three,  and  two  to  two  and  one-half  hours,  respectively; 
many  schools  have  less  than  five  and  some  have  full  six  hours.     In  certain  locali- 


Time  Allotment. — Program  Making.  217 

A    FIVE-AND-ONE-HALF-HOUR    DAY. 

Usual  number  of  recitations  per  week  in  graded  schools 

15  or  20  in  primary  grades  to  5  in  upper. 
10  in  primary  grades  to  5  in  upper. 

5  in  eighth  grade,  once  a  week  in  seventh  grade,  if  at  all. 

5,  possibly  3,  in  eighth  grade. 

5  except  in  eighth  grade,  when  1  per  week  (25  minutes)  may  be  better. 

5  in  general.     Occasionally  a  "match,"  using  all  of  one  week's  time  in  eighth  grade  (50  minutes). 

5  for  j  year  only,  or  2  or  3  a  week  for  a  whole  year  in  eighth  grade,  5,  below  eighth  grade. 

5  sometimes  combined  with  Industry  for  an  excursion. 

5  sometimes  combined  with  Geography  or  Industry  in  an  excursion. 

5,  2,  or  1 — depending  on  kind  of  work  and  grade  (25  minutes  a  week — often  done  in  general  exercises). 

{2  or  3  if  gymnasium  and  swimming-pool  are  used. 
5  if  room  and  halls  are  used  (50  minutes  a  week). 
5  in  lower  grades  shown. 
2  (100  minutes  a  week.) 
2  (100  minutes  a  week.) 

5,  2,  or  1 — depending  on  kind  of  work  (25-50  minutes  a  week — often  done  in  general  exercises  or  related 
to  composition  work.) 

{5  in  lower  grades  teaching  children  to  do  seat-work  correctly. 
2  in  upper  grades,  teaching  children  to  organize,  use  references,  use  a  library,  etc.,  expecially   in   Geog- 
raphy and  History — sometimes  in  Arithmetic  or  Literature. 

5  in  upper  grades;  often  done  in  General  Exercises  in  lower  grades. 

5  in  primary  rooms,  2  in  older  grades  (75-50  minutes  a  week).     (Often  done  in  General  Exercises.) 
5  in  general,  though  sometimes  10. 

5  in  primary  rooms,  2  in  older  grades  (150-100  minutes  a  week). 
Some  good  book  or  poem  on  hand  to  fill  odd  moments  or  an  occasional  General  Exercise. 

5  needed  in  grades  indicated. 
If  physical  exercises  need  to  be  given  more  time,  recesses  may  be  shortened. 
General-exercise  periods  may  be  lengthened  by  using  time  allotments  for  subjects  suitable  to  use  thus. 

Note  2. — Rural  schools  contain  so  many  classes  which  can  not  always  be  united  that  a  different  time 
apportionment  seems  necessary,  more  minutes  being  given  to  the  "three  R's."  The  number  and  the 
sizes  of  classes  will  regulate  how  much  of  the  time  of  one  subject  is  to  be  spent  in  recitation  with  each  grade. 
(See  sample  rural  programs.)  P'or  example,  25  minutes  a  day  given  to  history  may  be  distributed  thus: 
25  minutes  Monday  and  Wednesday  to  fifth-and  sixth-grade  history;  25  minutes  Tuesday  and  Thursday 
to  seventh-  and  eighth-grade  history;  25  minutes  Friday  to  whole  room,  or  to  first  four  grades,  or  general 
citizenship  topics,  current  events,  or  historical  biographies,  etc. 

If  two  classes  are  indicated  to  recite  in  one  period,  they  may  recite  together,  alternating  the  years 
of  work  (for  example,  taking  seventh-grade  history  in  odd  numbered  years  and  eighth-grade  history  in 
even  numbered  years);  or  each  class  may  have  half  the  time,  or  whatever  time  is  fair  according  to  the 
number  of  pupils  in  each  class. 

ties  the  primary  pupils  have  shorter  sessions  than  do  the  older  pupils,  but  the 
average  day  is  five-  to  five-and-one-half  hours,  and  therefore  330  minutes  are 
used  as  the  basis  for  the  above  allotment  of  time  to  different  subjects. 

B.— PROGRAM  MAKING. 

A  well-planned  program,  followed  to  the  letter,  is  one  excellent  means  of 
teaching  pupils  the  habits  of  punctuality,  of  careful  preparation  of  daily  lessons 
and  of  self-control  in  providing  an  appropriate  time  for  doing  each  task  regard- 
less of  momentary  preference.  Such  a  program  also  saves  time  and  energy  which 
a  haphazard  plan  of  work  loses.  Children  should  be  able  to  see  the  program, 
and,  if  blackboard  space  is  limited,  the  program  should  be  printed  on  a  card  and 
hung  where  it  can  be  seen  by  teacher,  pupils,  and  visitors. 

Once  made,  a  program  should  be  followed  to  the  minute,  though  there  must 
of  course  be  exceptions  such  as  may  be  made  to  suit  the  superintendent  or  a 
visitor  interested  in  some  special  child  or  subject.     Teacher  and  pupils  thus  form 


218  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

the  habit  of  being  ready  at  the  appointed  time,  and  much  of  the  confusion  some- 
times heard  in  schoolrooms  can  be  avoided,  for,  without  warning,  children  should 
be  ready  for  the  coming  recitation.  Sometimes  a  mere  nod  from  the  teacher  can 
call  a  whole  class,  the  remainder  of  the  school  scarcely  noting  the  movement. 
Not  long  since,  the  writer  saw  the  opposite  of  this  when  a  teacher  called  a  class 
of  one  pupil  by  four  taps  of  the  bell,  thus  disturbing  all  the  other  pupils  and 
wasting  time. 

However,  before  the  teacher  knows  his  pupils,  he  should  not  attempt  to  make 
a  permanent  program,  but  should  plan  to  accomplish  two  main  purposes  during 
his  early  days  in  a  new  school:  (1)  To  keep  all  happily  busy,  at  worth-while 
tasks;  and  (2)  to  find  out  the  children's  weaknesses  and  strength — that  is,  to  re- 
view and  test  them  on  the  ground  preparatory  to  the  new  work  of  the  year. 

A  temporary  program  should  be  on  the  blackboard  before  nine  o'clock  of 
the  opening  day,  should  be  rigidly  followed  that  day,  varied  on  each  of  several 
succeeding  days  if  necessary,  and  finally  replaced  by  a  permanent  program.  An 
inexperienced  teacher  may  not  be  satisfied  that  he  has  the  best  possible  program 
before  Thanksgiving;  but  the  best  way  to  prove  a  program's  value  or  weakness 
is  to  follow  it  exactly.  If  it  needs  changing,  change  it;  but  do  not  let  an  unused 
program  remain  on  the  wall  a  day. 

To  keep  all  pupils  happily  at  work  before  regular  tasks  can  be  set,  the  teacher 
must  have  more  kinds  of  seat-  or  study-work  planned  than  will  ever  afterwards 
be  necessary  in  a  single  day.  Little  children  should  have  frequent  relaxation 
periods  and  much  variety  in  tasks.  Older  pupils  should  go  home  even  at  noon 
with  the  happy  feeling  that  something  has  been  accomplished  and  more  is  to  be 
accomplished  during  the  days  to  follow.  The  better  to  test  children's  ability 
to  work  independently,  it  will  be  well  to  have  all  recite  together  in  several  sub- 
jects, and  then  have  a  common  study  period,  during  which  the  teacher  can  teach 
pupils  the  best  ways  of  preparing  lessons  or  of  doing  assigned  tasks. 

The  testing  of  pupils'  ability  in  different  subjects  may  not  demand  so  much 
time  per  pupil  as  do  teaching  lessons,  but  will  demand  longer  or  duplicated  reci- 
tation periods  to  hear  every  child  recite.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  not  over 
half  the  school  can  be  tested  in  one  day,  or  that  only  a  few  important  subjects 
can  be  so  handled;  but  every  child  should  have  recited  in  at  least  one  important 
subject. 

The  factors  to  be  considered  in  making  a  permanent  program  are  three  (or 
four):  (1)  The  relative  value  of  subjects;  (2)  economy  of  time,  of  energy,  and  of 
materials;  (3)  the  psychological  laws  of  work  and  fatigue;  and,  in  some  systems 
of  schools,  (4)  fixed  times  for  recesses  or  for  special-teachers'  instruction  periods. 

Factor  1:  For  a  discussion  of  the  relative  values  of  the  different  school  sub- 
jects, see  Time  Allotment  above.  In  the  making  of  a  program  the  teacher  must 
consider  how  to  subordinate  the  less  essential  subjects  and  still  give  them  place. 
There  are  four  main  ways  of  doing  this:  (1)  Alternate  one  less-important  subject 
with  another,  either  by  days,  weeks,  or  seasons;  (2)  shorten  the  daily  period  for 
that  subject;  (3)  have  larger  groups  recite,  during  a  given  time,  than  in  the  more 
essential  subjects;  (4)  combine  any  closely  related  subjects. 

Factor  2:  Regarding  economy  of  time  and  energy  experienced  teachers  need 
no  help;  but  inexperienced  teachers  do  not  realize  the  value  of  saving  the  precious 
minutes,  and  are  therefore  inclined  to  plan  work  so  that  needless  school  time  is 
spent  cleaning  blackboards,  in  distributing  and  collecting  drawing  or  industrial 
material,  in  sharpening  pencils,  and  so  on.  A  lesson  which  demands  much  use 
of  the  blackboard,  with  work  to  be  left  for  copying  by  the  children  or  correcting 


Time  Allotment. — Program  Making.  219 

by  the  teacher,  should  be  placed  before  some  intermission,  so  that  monitors  (who 
count  the  task  an  honor)  get  all  in  readiness  for  the  next  session.  Lessons  which 
demand  much  distribution  and  collection  of  material  should  be  put  just  after  or 
just  before  an  intermission,  so  that  one  phase  of  the  passing  can  be  done  by  moni- 
tors outside  of  the  work  hours.  For  example,  a  painting  lesson,  with  its  boxes, 
brushes,  specimens,  newspapers,  or  pasteboards  for  keeping  the  desks  clean, 
water-cups,  paint-rags,  and  possibly  other  tools,  as  well  as  the  finished  but  moist 
paintings  to  be  disposed  of,  would  best  come  just  before  noon.  Also,  since  drill 
lessons  require  much  less  time  but  greater  alertness  on  the  part  of  pupils,  phonic 
or  arithmetic  drills  can  well  be  sandwiched  in  between  longer  periods  needed  for 
developing  lessons.  Also,  to  economize  materials,  it  would  be  better  to  have  a 
cutting-and-pasting  lesson  once  a  week  for  a  longer  period,  than  daily  for  five 
minutes,  since  in  the  longer  period  scraps  of  paper  and  paste  could  be  more  eco- 
nomically used  than  in  short  periods. 

Factor  3:  There  are  too  many  laws  of  work  and  fatigue  for  all  to  be  consid- 
ered or  discussed  here.  As  it  would  be  equally  impossible  for  a  beginning  teacher 
to  obey  all  of  them  in  his  first  program  making,  only  a  few  laws  are  given:  (1) 
The  younger  the  pupils,  the  greater  variety  of  work  should  there  be,  with  shorter 
periods  of  concentrated  effort  alternating  with  pleasant  forms  of  relaxation.  (2) 
Moderate,  regular  exercise  is  in  general  better  than  spasmodic,  excessive  work — 
that  is,  five  minutes  spent  daily  on  some  form  of  drill  will  produce  better  results 
than  will  a  twenty-five  minute  period  once  a  week.  (3)  Fatigue  diffuses,  so  that, 
for  example,  long  eye-strain  may  produce  general  fatigue,  or  general  fatigue  may 
cause  a  lack  of  acuteness  in  hearing  or  seeing,  hence  the  program  should  allow 
for  periods  of  real  recreation,  not  mere  change  of  work;  teachers  having  no  re- 
cesses because  they  cause  disciplinary  troubles  do  not  judge  values  well;  to  ap- 
ply the  law  of  diffusion  of  rest  or  fatigue  to  program  making,  a  teacher  will  not 
put  penmanship  just  after  an  outdoor  recess  or  a  gymnastic  game  when  the 
muscles  are  too  relaxed  to  do  work  demanding  fine  coordination,  but  will  put  it 
before  such  a  rest  period  or  in  the  middle  of  a  session;  on  the  other  hand,  sing- 
ing may  well  follow  an  exercise  in  which  the  lungs  have  been  refreshed.  (4)  Fatigue 
usually  increases  and  decreases  rhythmically,  so  that  a  program  should  alternate 
hard  and  easy  work  for  the  majority  of  the  pupils;  individual  differences  in 
fatigue  phenomena  must  also  be  studied,  so  that  pupils  who  fatigue  more  quickly 
than  others  may  not  be  injured  by  straining  to  work  when  too  weary.  No  two 
grades  or  schools  are  exactly  alike,  so  no  two  programs  can  be  alike;  but  when 
a  teacher  once  finds  what  his  pupils  can  best  do  at  given  hours  of  the  day,  that 
program  should  be  faithfully  followed. 

Factor  4:  In  systems  where  certain  days  are  rearranged  to  suit  special  teach- 
ers, or  where  intermissions  are  planned  to  meet  playground  facilities,  the  teacher 
has  additional  problems  in  program  making  which  only  experiment  can  satisfac- 
torily solve. 

In  trying  to  follow  a  program  faithfully,  the  inexperienced  teacher  is  apt  to 
leave  himself  no  time  for  change  of  classes,  general  directions  to  the  class  about 
to  begin  study,  or  general  inspection  of  work  just  completed  by  some  class.  Such 
time  must  be  provided  for  by  leaving  a  minute  or  two  free  at  certain  intervals,  or 
by  dismissing  one  class  early  enough  to  assign  seat-work  and  yet  call  the  next 
class  on  time. 

General  exercises  may  occur  at  either  or  both  the  opening  and  closing  of  the 
day,  but  should  be  made  definitely  educative  in  their  consummation — and  being 
"educative"  does  not  exclude  humor.     Every  program  should  have  some  place 


220 


Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 


upon  it  for  fun,  in  the  shape  of  a  bright  story  to  be  read  or  told,  anecdotes,  puns, 
original  but  kind  cartoons,  riddles,  jokes,  games,  or  intellectual  contests.  If  no 
other  place  can  be  had,  the  last  five  to  ten  minutes  of  the  day  may  profitably  be 
so  spent. 

SAMPLE  PROGRAMS. 

Note: — All  programs  show  the  minute  for  beginning  a  recitation,  and  the  number  of  min- 
utes to  be  used  therein. 

Program  for  a  First  or  a  Second  Grade. 
With  three  classes,  adapted  from  one  used  by  Miss  Irene  Ferguson,  Hillsboro,  111. 


A.    M. 

9.00-10 — Opening  Exercises. 

9.10-10— Reading,  C. 

9.20-15 — Penmanship,  A  and  B. 

9.35-  5 — Rest  Exercises,  all. 

9.40-15— Reading,  A. 

9.55-  5 — Gymnastics,  all. 
10.00-15— Reading,  B. 
10.15-  5 — Sense  Training,  all. 
10.20-  5— Number,  C. 
10.25-10— Number,  A. 
10.35-15— Recess,  all. 
10.50-10— Number,  B. 
11.00-15— Phonics,  C  (then  dismiss). 
11.15-10— Word  Study,  A.     (Spelling.) 
11.25-10— Word  Study,  B.      (Phonics.) 
11.35-10 — Corrective  language  games,  A  and  B, 
11.45-10— Nature  Study,  A  and  B. 
11.55-  5 — Dismissal. 


P.  M. 

1.15-10 — Rote  Singing,  all. 

1.25-10— Reading,  C. 

1.35-12— Reading,  A. 

1.47-  5— Rest,  all. 

1.52-13— Reading,  B. 

2.05-10— Number,  C. 

2.15-  5— Games,  all. 

2.20-10 — Written  Language  including  Spell.,  A. 

2.30-10 — Written  Language  including  Spell.,  B. 

(A  and  B  often  united.) 
2.40-15 — Recess,  all. 

2.55-15 — Oral  Language,  C  (often  dismiss). 
3.10-13— Oral  Language,  A. 
3.23-12— Oral  Language,  B. 

(A,  B,  and  C  often  united.) 
3.35-20—  Drawing,  A  and  B. 
3.55-15 — Note  Singing,  A  and  B. 
4.10-05— Dismissal. 


If  school  should  be  in  session  less  than  the  six  hours  here  shown,  recess  and  the  longer  recita- 
tions could  be  shortened.  This  program  is  excellent  in  that  it  provides  for  three  sections,  since 
absence  or  immaturity  or  both  will  very  soon  make  three  divisions  necessary,  in  almost  every  first 
grade,  and  in  many  second  grades. 


Program  for  a  Third  or  a  Fourth  Grade. 
Furnished  by  Miss  Grace  P.  Kissling,  Winona  city  schools. 


p.  M. 

1.30-20 — B  and  A,  Language. 

1.50-20— B,  Reading. 

2.10-20— A  and  B,  Music. 

2.30-10 — Recess.     (See  morning  recess.) 

2.40-20— A,  Reading. 

Monday,  Wednesday,  Friday. 
3.00-15 — A  and  B,  Geography.     In  this  work, 
make  excursions  to  city's  factories,  insti- 
tutions, etc.,  and  use  information  gained 
in  arithmetic,  language,  etc. 

Tuesday  and  Thursday. 
3.00-15— A  and  B,  History. 
3.15-15 — Monday — Individual    help    to    back- 
ward pupils. 
Tuesday  and   Wednesday.       Hygiene 

(for  6  weeks). 
Thursday  and  Friday.    Nature  Study 
— making  frequent  excursions. 

To  suit  special  teachers,  classes  may  be  shifted,  but  so  far  as  possible  the  regular  hours  are 
those  of  the  special  teachers.  Alternate  Thursdays — Music  teacher  10.45  to  11.05.  Then  take 
five  minutes  from  morning  exercises  and  move  classes  forward,  keeping  right  number  of  minutes, 
putting  Drawing  in  afternoon  in  place  of  Music.  Alternate  Wednesdays — Drawing  teacher — 
regular  period.     Fridays — Writing  teacher — regular  period. 


9.00-10 — Morning   Exercises,  including  story 
told   by  teacher,  or  teaching  a  stanza  of 
some  poem,  memory  gem,  or  observations 
made  by  children  out  of  doors. 
9.10-20— B,  Reading. 

9.30-15 — B  and  A,  Phonics  in  connection  with 
Spelling  and  drill  in  the  use  of  the  diction- 
ary. 
9.45-15— A  and  B,  Writing. 
10.00-20— A,  Numbers. 

10.20-15 — Recess — out-door    play,    supervised 
by  teacher;  rainy  days,  indoor  games  and 
physical  exercises. 
]().::.",   L'O—  H,  Numbers. 
10.53  20 — Drawing. 
11.15-20— A,  Reading. 
11.35-10— Written  Spelling,  A  and  B. 


Time  Allotment. — Sample  Programs. 


221 


1.30-20 — Writing — twice  a  week. 
1.50-10 — General  period — Hygiene,  Literature. 
1.30-30 — Drawing — three  times  a  week. 
2.00-25 — A,  Reading.     (B,  study  Language.) 


2.25-20— B,  Language. 
2.45-20 — A,  Language. 
3.05-25— B,  Reading. 


Program  for  a  Fifth  or  a  Sixth  Grade. 
Furnished  by  Miss  Mabel  McLennan,  Winona  city  schools 

A.  M.  P.  M. 

9.00-10 — Opening    Exercises — Music,    Litera- 
ture, Current  Events,  etc. 
9.10-20 — Spelling — short  period  of  study  and 
drill;  then  writing  of  lesson  from  memory. 
9.30-30— A,  Arithmetic.  (B,  study  Geography 
or  History.) 
10.00-30 — B,  Geography  or  History  (alternate). 

(A,  study  Geography  or  History.) 
10.30-5 — Intermission  (when  weather  permits, 
outdoor  recess  of  20  minutes.     Periods  fol- 
lowing consequently  shortened.) 
10.35-25 — A,  Geography  or  History.      (B,  study 

Arithmetic.) 
11.00-25— B,  Arithmetic.     (A,  study  Reading.) 
H.25-20—  Music. 

Fridays. 
10.30-11.45 — Sewing  and  Manual  Training. 


(A,  study  Language.) 

(B,  study  Reading.) 

(A,  study  Arithmetic.) 


A  city  school  where  special  teachers  teach 
their  special  subjects  at  regular  intervals, 
hence  adjustments  must  be  made  thus:  Writing 
teacher  every  Tuesday,  10.10-10.20;  Drawing 
teacher,  alternate  Mondays,  9.45-10.10;  Music 
teacher  alternate  Mondays,  2.25-2.45. 


Program  for  a  Seventh  or  an  Eighth  Grade. 
Furnished  by  Miss  Agnes  Storie,  Indianapolis  schools, 
p.  M. 


A.  M. 
8.30-10 — Opening  Exercises. 
8.40-30 — English,   Spelling,   Dictation,   Word 

Study,  Composition,  all. 
9.10-10 — Physical  Exercises. 
9.20-30 — Mathematics,  A. 
9.50-30 — English  Grammar,  A  and  B.  (Classes 
alternate  seat-work  and  recitation.) 
10.20-15— Recess. 
10.35-30 — Mathematics,  B. 
11.05-30 — Literature,  A,  first  4  days  of  week, 

B  on  Fridays. 
11.35-25 — Geography  and  History,  B. 

Program  for  a  Rural  School. 
Furnished  by  Miss  Margaret  McAdam,  of  Blooming  Prairie,  Minn. 
a.  m.  p.  m. 

9.00-10 — Morning  Exercises. 
9.10-10 — Beginners'  Class  (Reading  prepara- 
tion).' 


Monday,  Tuesday,  Wednesday. 
1.30-30— Literature,  B. 
2.00-25 — Geography  and  History,  A. 
2.25-35 — Penmanship  and.  Music,  A  and  B. 

Thursday  and  Friday. 
1 .30-45 — Drawing. 
2.15-25 — History  and  Geography,  A  or  B  (each 

one  day  or  one  two  days,  as  needed). 
2.40-20 — Physiology  and  Hygiene,  or  general 

lessons. 


(Spelling 


12.40-10 — Beginners'  Reading. 
12.50-10 — 1st,  Reading. 
1.00-10 — 2d,  Reading. 

1.10-15— 3d  and  4th,  Reading,  3  days.  (Lan- 
guage, 2  days.) 
1.25-15 — 5th  and  6th,  History,  3  days.   (Lan- 
guage, 2  days.) 
1.40-20 — 7th  and  Sth  History  (Reference  and 

Composition  work.) 
2.00-10 — Writing,    except    Friday;    Drawing, 
Friday. 
2.10-10 — Recess. 

2.20-10— Word  Study.     (Phonics.) 
2.30-10— 2d  and  3d,  Home  Geography.  (Lan- 
guage.)    Industrial  work  for  seat-work. 
2.40-15 — 4th    and    5th,     Geography.      (Lan- 
guage.)    Industrial  work  for  seat-work. 
2.55-15 — 6th    and    7th,     Geography.     (Lan- 
guage.)    Industrial  work  for  seat-work. 
3.10-15— Sth,  Grammar. 

3.25-05— Sth  and  6th,  Spelling  (from  speller); 
(group  spelling  an  advantage). 
Keep  up  drills  in  arithmetic  by  letting  2d  grade  recite  with  1st,  3d  with  2d,  4th  with  3d,  etc., 
whenever  practicable.     Noon  hour  may  be  lengthened  and  school  close  later,  but  closing  school 

(Concluded  on  Page  224.) 


9.20-10 — 1st,  Reading. 

9.30-10— 2d,  Reading. 

9.40-20 — 7th  and  Sth,  Reading, 
and  Composition.) 
10.00-15— 3d  and  4th,  Reading. 
10.15-15— Sth  and  6th,  Reading. 
10.30-10 — Recess. 
10.40-10 — Beginners'  Reading  (Later  in  year, 

Numbers.) 
10.50-10— 1st  and  2d,  Number. 
11.00-10— 2d  and  3d,  Number. 
11.10-15— 4th  and  Sth,  Arithmetic. 
11.25-15 — 6th  and  7th,  Arithmetic. 
11.40-20— Sth,  Arithmetic. 
12.00-40— Noon. 


222 


Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 


PROGRAM  OF  RECITATION  AND  STUDY 

Furnished  by  Miss  Mary  Ensfield,  Specialist 


A.  M. 

RECITATION. 

(4)  Grade  I. 

(4)  Grade  II. 

(5)  Grade  III. 

9.00-15 

Opening  Ex.* 

Opening  Ex.* 

Opening  Ex.* 

Opening  Ex.* 

9.15-10 

1st  and  2d,  Numbers. 

Numbers. 

Numbers. 

Prep.  Numbers. 

9.25-10 

3d,  Numbers. 

Stringing. 

String'g  or  Weav'g 

Numbers. 

9.35-15 
9.50-20 

4th,  Numbers. 

5th  and  6th,  Arithmetic. 

Stringing. 
Sand  table. 

String'g  or  Weav'g 
String'g  or  Weav'g 

Use  pt.,  qt.,  gal. 
measures. 

10.10-20 

7th  and  Sth,  Arithmetic. 

Excused. 

Excused. 

Excused. 

10.30-15 

Recess. 

Recess. 

Recess. 

Recess. 

10.45-15 

1st,  Reading. 

Reading. 

Use  readers. 

Prep.  Read. 

11.00-10 
11.10-15 

2d,  Reading. 

3d  and  4th,  Reading. 

f  Build  sentences 
J  from  hectograph- 
1  ed  words  from 
(  Reading. 

Reading. 

Build  words  out 
of  letters. 

Prep.  Read. 

Reading. 

11.25-20 

|7th  and  Sth,  Hist,  or  Civics. 

Excused. 

Excused. 

Illus.  Read,  by 
paper  cutting. 

11.45-15 

tSth  and  6th,  Read,  or  History. 

Excused. 

12.00-60 

Noon. 

Noon. 

Noon. 

Noon. 

P.  M. 
1.00-10 

Jlst,  Reading. 

Reading. 

Prep.  Read. 

Prep.  Read. 

1.10-15 

J2d,  Reading. 

Free-Hand 
Drawing. 

Reading. 

Prep.  Read. 

1.25-15 

J3d,  Reading. 

Free-Hand 
Drawing. 

Free-Hand 
Drawing. 

Reading. 

1.40-20 

4th,  Language,  1,  S,  5. 
Geography  2,  4- 

Picture-Books. 

Free-Hand 
Drawing. 

Free-Hand 
Drawing. 

2.00-15 

Sth  and  6th,  Language  1,  S,  5. 
Hygiene  2,  Jf. 

Excused  to  play. 

Excused  to  play. 

Prep.  Spelling. 

2.15-15 
2.30-15 

7th  and  Sth,  Grammar  1 ,  3,  6. 

Hygiene  2,  J,.. 
Recess. 

Recess. 

Recess. 

Prep.  Spelling. 
Recess. 

2.45-15 

1st,  2d,  and  3d,  Language. 

Language. 

Language. 

Language. 

3.00-15 

3d  and  4th,  Writing. 
Spelling. 

Dismissal. 

Dismissal. 

Spelling  and 
Writing. 

3.15-30 

Geography,  7th  and  Sth,  1,3,5. 
Sth  and  6th,  2,  4. 

Dismissal. 

3.45-15 

6th,  6th,  7th,  and  Sth,  Writing. 

Spelling. 

4.00     Dismissal. 

*  Music,  Drawing,  Nature  Study,  Story  Hour,  Discussion. 
t  Combined  for  Agriculture  on  Mondays  during  spring  term. 
t  Combined  for  dramatization  and  reading  poems  some  times. 
§  Pupils  take  turns  in  preparing  and  serving  hot  noon  luncheon. 


Time  Allotment. — Sample  Programs. 


223 


FOR  RURAL  SCHOOLS,  (30  PUPILS.) 

in  Rural  Education,  Winona  Normal  School. 


(6)   Grade  IV. 

(3)  Grade  Y. 

(2)   Grade  VI. 

(4)   Grade  VII. 

(2)  Grade  VIII. 

Opening  Ex.* 

Prep.  Numbers. 

Prep.  Numbers. 

Numbers. 

Drill  on  tables  on 
blackboard. 

Drill  on  tables  on 
blackboard. 

Recess. 

Opening  Ex.* 
Prep.  Arithmetic. 
Prep.  Arithmetic. 
Prep.  Arithmetic. 
A  rithmelic. 

Finish  Prob. 

Recess. 

Opening  Ex.* 
Prep.  Arithmetic. 
Prep.  Arithmetic. 
Prep.  Arithmetic. 

Arithmetic. 

Finish  Prob. 
Recess. 

Opening  Ex.* 
Prep.  Arithmetic. 
Prep.  Arithmetic. 
Prep.  Arithmetic. 
Prep.  Arithmetic. 

Arithmetic. 

Recess. 

Opening  Ex.* 
Prep.  Arithmetic. 
Prep.  Arithmetic. 
Prep.  Arithmetic. 
Prep.  Arithmetic. 

Arithmetic. 

Recess. 

Prep.  Reading. 
Prep.  Reading. 
Reading. 

Industrial  Work. 

Industrial  Work. 

Noon. 

Prep.  Reading. 
Prep.  Reading. 
Prep.  Reading. 

Ind.  Work  or 
§Prep.  Lunch. 

Reading.  1,  S,  5. 
History,  2,  4- 

Noon. 

Prep.  Reading. 
Prep.  Reading. 
Prep.  Reading. 

Ind.  Work  or 
§Prep.  Lunch. 

Reading,  1,  3,  6. 
History,  2,  4. 

Noon. 

Prep.  Hist,  or  Civ. 
Prep.  Hist,  or  Civ. 
Prep.  Hist,  or  Civ. 

History,  1,2,3,  4. 
Civics,  5. 

Ind.  Work  or 
§Prep.  Lunch. 

Noon. 

Prep.  Hist,  or  Civ. 
Prep.  Hist,  or  Civ. 
Prep.  Hist,  or  Civ. 

History,  1,2,3,  4- 
Civics,  5. 

Ind.  Work  or 
§Prep.  Lunch. 

Noon. 

Prep.  Language, 
or  Geography. 

Prep.  Language 
or  Geography. 

Prep.  Language 
or  Geography. 

Lang,  or  Geog. 

Prep.  Spelling. 

Prep.  Spelling. 
Recess. 

Prep.  Language 
or  Hygiene. 

Prep.  Language 
or  Hygiene. 

Prep.  Language 
or  Hygiene. 

Prep.  Spelling. 

Lang,  or  Hygiene. 

Prep.  Geography. 
Recess. 

Prep.  Language 
or  Hygiene. 

Prep.  Language 
or  Hygiene. 

Prep.  Language 
or  Hygiene. 

Prep.  Spelling. 

Lang,  or  Hygiene. 

Prep.  Geography. 
Recess. 

Prep  Grammar 
or  Hygiene. 

Prep.  Grammar 
or  Hygiene. 

Prep.  Grammar 
or  Hygiene. 

Prep.  Spelling. 

Prep.  Geography. 

Gram,  or  Hygiene. 
Recess. 

Prep.  Gram,  or 
Hygiene. 

Prep.  Gram,  or 
Hygiene. 

Prep.  Gram,  or 
Hygiene. 

Prep.  Spelling. 

Prep.  Geography. 

Gram,  or  Hygiene. 
Recess. 

Spelling  and 
Writing. 

Dismissal. 

Prep.  Geography. 
Prep.  Geography. 

Geography,  2,  4- 

Spelling  and 
Writing. 

Dismissal. 

Prep.  Geography. 
Prep.  Geography. 

Geography,  2,  4- 

Spelling  and 
Writing. 

Dismissal. 

Prep.  Geography. 
Prep.  Geography. 

Geography,  1 ,  ■!,  0. 

Spelling  and 
Writing. 

Dismissal. 

Prep.  Geography. 
Prep.  Geography. 

Geography,  1,3,  6. 

Spelling  and 
Writing. 

Dismissal. 

This  program  has  been  tried  out  and  proved  to  be  good. 

Words  printed  in  italics  indicate  recitations. 

Numbers  in  parentheses  before  grades  indicate  number  of  pupils  in  the  grade. 

Numbers  after  the  subjects  indicate  the  days  of  the  week  when  the  class  recites. 


224  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

(Concluded  from  page  221.) 
at  3:30  gives  children  a  chance  to  assist  with  the  work  and  yet  get  home  before  dusk.  Let  young- 
est pupils  have  extra  recess  periods  to  play  out  of  doors  or  in  the  halls.  Writing  only  ten  minutes, 
but  make  all  lessons  writing  lessons.  Drawing  only  one  day,  for  instruction  only;  practice  for 
seat-work  other  days.  In  the  lower  grades  language  must  be  based  on  other  school  subjects  in- 
dicated in  parentheses.  In  grades  5,  6,  7,  a  language-book  may  be  used  a  part  of  the  time  as  a 
guide.  Word  drills  and  word  study  should  precede  the  reading  lessons  in  lower  grades.  Phonics 
should  be  at  a  separate  period  at  least  once  a  day.  Organize  a  club  of  some  kind.  Have  it  meet 
for  a  general  program  the  last  quarter  of  a  day  of  each  month.  Sewing  and  other  industrial  work 
may  be  done  in  clubs  outside  of  school. 

Program  for  a  Rural  School. 

Furnished  by  Miss  Georgina  Lommen  of  the  State  Agricultural  School. 

(School  of  30  pupils:  1st  grade  6,  3d  grade  6,  4th  grade  4,  5th  grade  6,  7th  grade  3,  Sth  grade  5.) 

A.   M.  P.  M. 

9.00-10 — Opening  Exercises.  1.00-10 — Primer  class,  Reading,  Language  or 

9.10-10 — Word  Study.  Phonics. 

9.20-10 — Primer  class.  1.10-15 — 3d  and  4th,  Reading  (alternate  oral 

9.30-15 — Sth,  Arithmetic.  and  silent.) 

9.45-20 — 3d  and  4th,  Reading  (alternate  silent        1.25-20 — 7th   and   Sth,    Geography    (alternate 
and  oral).  years). 

10.05-15 — Sth,  Reading.  1.45-15 — Sth,  Geography. 

10.20-10 — 7th,  Reading.  2.00-05 — RestExercises — Drills,  Games,  Songs, 

10.30-10 — Recess.  Marches. 

10.40-10 — Primary,  Number.  2.05-15— 3d  and  4th, Geography  (Nature  Study 

10.50-15 — Sth.,  Reading.  or  Language). 

11.05-15 — 3d  and  4th,  Number  (alternate  oral         2.20-15 — 8th,  Grammar. 

and  board  work.)  2.35-10 — Recess. 

11.20-25 — 5th  and  7th,   Arithmetic    (alternate         2.45-15 — Primary  History  (1,  2,  3,  4). 

oral  and  board  work).  3.00-20 — 7th  and  Sth,  History  (alternate years.) 

11.45-15— Writing.  3.20-10— 7th,  Language. 

Noon  hour — Games,  lunch,  monitors'  reports,         3.30-15 — 5th,  History  or  Language, 
sewing,  duties,  etc.  3.45-15 — Spelling  classes. 

On  Fridays,  omit  last  classes  and  have  De- 
bate, Literary  Work,   Manual  Training,  Sew- 
ing, or  Handwork,  for  1J  hour. 
Note: — If  necessary,  on  Fridays,  shorten  noon  hour  to  a  half  hour  rather  than  omit  so  many 
classes.     If  best,  have  geography  and  history,  on  alternate  days,  doubling  the  time  for  both.     Lan- 
guage must  grow  out  of  history,  geography,  etc.,  or  be  based  on  agricultural  work,  which  must 
be  done  in  general  exercises,  at  noon,  etc.     Opening  Exercises  may  consist  of  current  events,  the 
reading  of  good  books,  memory  gems,  lives  of  famous  men  and  women,  nature  study,  songs,  story- 
telling by  teacher  and  pupils,  agriculture,  hygiene,  and   study  of  vocations.     The  wise  teacher 
will  provide  opportunity  for  changes — physical    exercises,  songs,  games,  marches,  etc. — at  least 
once  during  every  quarter  of  a  day. 

III.— SELECTION    OF    TEXT-BOOKS. 

One  of  the  things  every  teacher  has  to  do  is  to  select  one  or  more  text-books 
for  the  school  in  which  he  teaches.  The  tendency  of  an  inexperienced  teacher 
is  to  take  the  word  of  an  agent,  or  to  select  a  book  used  by  a  friend  or  used  in 
some  school  which  he  admires.  The  difficulty  with  such  selection  is  that,  though 
the  book  possess  great  merit,  it  may  not  at  all  meet  the  needs  of  the  particular 
school  for  which  it  is  intended.  Again,  teachers  differ  so  widely  in  their  methods 
of  using  a  book  that  what  suits  one  teacher  does  not  another.  "In  Mythland," 
for  first  or  second  grade;  "Pinocchio,"  for  third  or  fourth  grade;  "Lamb's  Tales 
of  Ulysses,"  for  fifth  grade;  and  "Alice  in  Wonderland,"  for  the  sixth  grade;  are. 
books  which  the  writer  has  known  cejtain  teachers  to  use  with  remarkable  suc- 
cess, while  other  teachers  could  get  neither  reading  results  nor  interest  from  the 
children.  Hence,  it  is  not  safe  to  select  a  book  merely  because  some  one  else  has 
used  it  successfully. 


Selection  of  Text-Books. — Reader.  225 

Since  readers  wear  out  and  are  cither  changed  or  supplemented  more  fre- 
quently than  are  other  texts,  more  detailed  suggestions  are  given  for  selecting  a 
reader  than  for  other  books.  In  fact,  topics  1,  2,  and  4,  under  Readers,  with 
very  little  adaptation,  fit  all  texts. 

A.— HOW  TO  SELECT  A  READER  FOR  A   PARTICULAR 
SCHOOL  AND  GRADE. 

The  natural  order  of  procedure  is  given,  rather  than  one  which  indicates  the 
relative  values  of  the  acts  of  judgment.  Of  course,  if  at  any  point  the  book  is 
rejected,  the  remaining  points  are  not  even  considered.  Topic  three  is,  assuredly, 
the  one  of  greatest  weight. 

1. — Handle  the  Book  to  Notc.its  General  Make-up. 

a.  Cover — Attractive   or   objectionable?     Color   sensible    for   daily   use? 

Binding  strong  and  yet  flexible? 

b.  Type — As  pages  are  rapidly  turned,  does  the  type  seem  good?     Clear? 

Suited  to  age  of  pupils  who  are  to  use  the  book?  Is  the  reading  ma- 
terial well  arranged  on  the  page? 

c.  Paper — Is  it  of  good  quality?     Durable?     Well  sewed  at  back? 

d.  Illustrations — Are  they  pleasing  to  children?     Suited  to  the  stories? 

Well  colored?  Artistic?  Well  sewed,  if  full-page  pictures,  or  only 
pasted  in?     Too  few?     Too  many? 

2. — Look  at  the  Title  Page  and  those  immediately  following. 

a.  Author — Who  is  the  author?     Known,  or  never  heard  of?     Holds  what 

teaching  position?     Likely  or  not  to  make  a  good  reader? 

b.  Publishers — New,   or  well  established?     With  a  reputation   for  good 

book  making?  A  firm  that  publishes  what  is  really  good,  or  merely 
what  will  sell? 

c.  Copyrights — Date  of  first  printing  or  copyright?     Any  revisions  made? 

Even  though  date  is  recent,  does  the  book  seem  up  to  date?  (In 
general  the  life  of  a  reader  without  revision  is  not  over  ten  years, 
though  some  deserve  a  longer  life.) 

d.  Preface  or  Introduction  (or  both) — What  is  the  specific  aim  of  the 

book?     Is  that  the  aim  needed  by  the  school  which  is  to  use  the  book? 

e.  Table  of  Contents — Does  the  material,  judged  by  the  titles  and  au- 

thors quoted,  carry  out  the  specific  aim  or  not?  Does  the  material 
seem  to  duplicate  much  already  possessed  by  the  particular  school 
in  need  of  a  reader?  Or  is  it  mainly  new  material?  Which  is  wanted 
for  this  school  at  this  time,  new  material  or  the  same  material  in  new 
and  attractive  form? 

3. — The  Subject- Matter  itself. 

Is  it  literary  in  style?  Written  by  good  authors?  Or  is  it  "made  material" 
for  the  sake  of  some  device  being  exploited?  Does  it  meet  expecta- 
tions aroused  by  preface  and  table  of  contents?  Is  it  well  graded  in 
thought?  In  vocabulary?  Is  it  interesting  in  form?  Better  than 
material  already  in  use?  Is  there  variety,  or  sameness,  in  style? 
Which  is  most  needed  here?  Are  the  kinds  of  literature  needed  by 
this  grade  included? 


226  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

4. — Appendix  or  Supplement. 

Are  there  suggestions  as  to  the  use  of  the  book?     Are  there  aids  to  the 
teacher,  such  as  the  vocabulary  of  each  lesson,  if  primary;  a  glossary, 
if  for  older  pupils;   or  notes,  pronunciations  of  foreign  or  unusual 
words,  etc.?     Or,  does  a  "Manual"  accompany  the  reader  or  set  of 
readers?     If  so,  does  it  furnish  the  help  desired? 
Note:  Every  grade  should  have,  besides  the  regular  texts  of  standard  diffi- 
culty, one  or  more  sets  of  supplementary  readers    which,   first,    are    below    the 
standard    in    difficulty;    and,    second,    contain    especially   interesting   material. 
These  texts  should  not  be  used  by  lower  grades,  but  should  be  left  for  rapid 
sight  reading  or  for  use  by  children  a  bit  below  grade. 

B.— HOW  TO  SELECT  AN  ARITHMETIC  TEXT. 

After  adapting  for  use  sections  1,  2,  and  4,  above,  the  teacher  may  ask  him- 
self such  questions  as  these: 

1. — For  Primary  Work. 

a.  When  and  how  are  the  different  topics  introduced?     Does  this  agree 

with  the  Course  of  Study  I  am  to  use?  With  my  ideas?  That  is, 
can  I  teach  it  successfully?  Could  I  push  the  book  up  (or  down)  a 
grade  and  make  it  fit  our  school's  needs? 

b.  Is  the  sequence  of  topics  good?     Is  there  sufficient  drill  on  the  funda- 

mentals? 

c.  Is  there  sufficient  provision  for  seat-work?     Is  it  of  the  right  sort? 

Can  children  follow  the  directions  without  help?  Do  the  problems 
correlate  with  other  work  they  are  doing — for  example,  gardening, 
manual  training,  geography?  Does  the  vocabulary  used  correspond 
in  general  with  that  of  the  reader  in  use,  or  must  there  be  vocabulary 
lessons  on  the  arithmetic  text?     If  so,  can  I  make  a  place  for  that? 

d.  Are  there  any  suggestions  as  to  tests  for  ranking  pupils  by  grades? 

If  so,  do  they  seem  sensible?  Are  they  administered  with  a  satis- 
factory degree  of  ease? 

2. — For  Work  above  Primary. 

In  addition  to  the  points  under  1  above,  the  teacher  may  want  to  know: 

a.  Is  there  any  provision  for  frequent  reviews  or  drills  upon  the  funda- 

mental operations?  If  not,  is  there  time  for  me  to  add  these  nec- 
essary drills?     Can  I  omit  any  topics  to  make  such  provision? 

b.  Is  the  text  mathematically  accurate  in  use  of  terms,  in    definitions, 

etc.?  Does  it  introduce  any  algebra  or  geometry?  If  so,  is  such 
work  correct?  Sufficient  to  help  pupils  understand  literal  numbers 
and  equations  when  reached?     Too  much? 

c.  Are  the  applications  life-like?     Do  they  fit  modern  business  methods? 

Are  the  problems  worth  while  spending  time  upon  from  either  (or 
both)  the  processes  involved  or  the  subject-matter? 

d.  Are  the  topics  developed  well?     Are  there  any  suggestions  for  teach- 

ing the  topics?  Do  these  fit  my  ideas,  or  would  I  have  to  discard 
the  book  except  for  problems?  Is  the  material  of  the  book  arranged 
for  easy  reference,  or  else  well  indexed,  so  pupils  can  turn  readily 
to  a  desired  topic? 


Selection  of  Text-Books. — Geography.  227 

e.  Is  there  any  provision  for  "mental  arithmetic"  in  fundamental  pro- 
cesses? In  estimating  results  so  as  to  check  the  rationality  of  ac- 
curate result? 

C— HOW  TO  SELECT  A  GEOGRAPHY  TEXT. 

Some  teachers,  particularly  specialists  in  geography,  prefer  to  use  no  text- 
books, but  want  their  pupils  to  have  good  maps  or  atlases  and  geographical 
readers  or  other  reference  books.  If,  however,  a  text  is  to  be  used,  the  questions 
a  teacher  will  want  to  ask,  besides  those  implied  in  the  topics  above,  will  relate 
to  the  text,  the  maps,  and  the  pictures. 

1.  The  Text. 

a.  Is  the  material  so  arranged  as  to  be  in  itself  a  good  general  course  of 

study?  Can  the  topics  be  rearranged  to  suit  our  local  needs?  To 
suit  my  plan  of  development? 

b.  Does  it  emphasize  the  same  topics  we  need  to  emphasize,  and  subor- 

dinate the  topics  we  feel  to  be  less  important  for  our  use? 

c.  Will  it  help  pupils  to  see  relative  values?     To  learn  to  study?     To 

get  main  points?  To  develop  a  topic  so  that  it  can  be  given  with 
reasonable  confidence  by  the  student?  Will  it  give  a  new  view- 
point to  a  topic  developed  orally,  thus  fixing  the  concepts  more 
firmly? 

d.  Are  the  statistics,  summaries,  pronunciations,  etc.,  up  to  date  and 

accurate,  so  that  the  text  may  become  a  handy  reference-book  to 
be  used  in  connection  with  other  lessons  too? 

2.  The  Maps. 

a.  Are  there  maps  to  show  all  the  things  needed:  Surface,  drainage, 

winds,  political  divisions,  population,  industrial  regions,  commer- 
cial routes,  etc.? 

b.  Are  these  maps  sufficiently  detailed  for  the  age  of  pupils  who  need 

them  and  yet  not  so  detailed  as  to  confuse  them? 

c.  Can  I  use  these  maps  in  training  pupils  how  to  read  maps,  and  get 

from  one  all  that  is  possible? 
Note:  Every  teacher  will  need  to  supplement  the  text-book  maps  by   outline 
maps  for  practice  in  locating  surface,  political,  or  industrial  features.      Such 
maps  can  be  bought,  can  be  hectographed,  or  can  be  sketched  by  the  pupils. 

3.  The  Pictures  or  Illustrations. 

a.  Are  they  well  made,  attractive,  and  artistic,  as  well  as  suited  to  the 

text? 

b.  Will  they  definitely  assist  the  pupil  in  forming  concepts,    relating 

ideas,  and  applying  principles? 

Since  not  all  schools  have  regular  texts  in  the  other  subjects  of  the  curricu- 
lum, the  suggestions  for  judging  readers,  arithmetics,  and  geographies,  are  prob- 
ably sufficient  to  illustrate  the  need  of  careful  selection,  noting  (1)  that  the  book 
in  itself  is  possessed  of  educative  value;  (2)  that  its  content  fits  local  needs  and 
is  authoritative;  and  (3)  that  the  mechanical  make  up  of  the  book  is  satisfactory. 
Miss  Martha  Wilson,  Supervisor  of  School  Libraries,  has  an  excellent  outline  on 
points  to  be  noted  in  the  selection  of  dictionaries. 


228  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

IV.— HELPS  ON  ENGLISH. 
A.— THE  INTERRELATION  OF  THE  ENGLISH  SUBJECTS. 

(An  elaboration  of  the  outline  on  p.  12,  covering  pre-school  as  well  as  school 
ages.) 

I.  The  child  needs  to  understand  others,  hence  listens — 

A.  Involuntarily: 

1.  To  sounds  in  general — 

a.  Only  general  meanings  of  satisfaction  or  displeasure  secured. 

b.  Direction  of  sound  noted. 

2.  To  mother's  voice. 

a.  To  be  comforted — 

(1)  By  mere  nearness. 

(2)  By  soothing  tones. 

3.  To  others'  voices. 

4.  To  special  sounds. 

a.  Preparation  of  food. 

b.  Preparation  for  a  ride. 

c.  Preparation  for  bed-time. 

d.  Company,  etc. 

B.  Voluntarily: 

1.  To  discriminate  attitude  of  companions  towards  the  child. 

2.  To  discriminate  ideas. 

3.  To  learn  vocabulary  for  self  through  imitation. 

4.  Later  in  life,  to  acquire  ideas,  ideals,  emotions. 

II.  The  child  wants  others  to  understand  him,  hence  tries  to  communicate — 

A.  His  actual  needs — hunger  or  satisfaction,  pain  or  pleasure,  loneliness  or 

comfort,  by — 

1.  Intonation,  large  body  movements,  gesture,  facial  expression,  etc., 

(about  all  that  seem  necessary). 

2.  Repetition  of  sounds  for  the  same  causes — the  beginning  of  a  self- 

made  vocabulary. 

B.  His  desires. 

1.  Not  so  easily  conveyed  as  the  more  general  needs. 

2.  So  variable  as  not  to  permit  a  settled  mode  of  expression. 

3.  Not  so  readily  recognized  by  people  in  social  environment. 

4.  Hence  the  child  begins  to  imitate  "how  others  say  it." 

5.  Constant  alternation  of  listening  and  of  trying  the  new  sounds  de- 

velops the  child's  conventional  vocabulary. 

6.  With  advancing  years  he  makes  finer  and  finer  discriminations  and 

so  secures  a  choicer  vocabulary  and  the  basis  for  new  thoughts. 

III.  The  child  revels  in  speech  for  its  own  sake,  hence  uses  language  as  an  end. 

A.  For  pure  love  of  sounds  heard. 

1.  Full,  resonant,  open  sounds. 

2.  Absurd  combinations  just  for  fun,  no  meaning  necessary. 

B.  For  pure  pleasure  of  vocalization. 

1.  Chattering,  with  no  intention  of  conveying  meaning. 

2.  Talking  to  self  in  nonsense  syllables  for  just  the  fun  of  talking. 

3.  To  get  feeling  of  power  that  speech  gives  one. 


Helps  .on  English. — Interrelation.  229 

C.  For  the  satisfaction  found  in  rhythm. 

1.  Rhythm  by  accent. 

2.  Rhythm  by  repetition. 

3.  Rhythm  by  rhyme  (repetition  of  similar  sounds  at  end). 

4.  Rhythm  in  the  form  of  onomatopoetic  words — this  runs  into  a    kind 

of  meaningful  vocabulary. 

D.  For  the  peculiar  emotions  and  meanings  which  accompany  some  sounds.* 
(In  older  children  and  in  adults  the  same  causes  operate,  but  are  often  cloaked 

by  some  more  or  less  sensible  reason.) 

IV.  The  child  wants  to  find  out  what  is  in  books — hence  wants  to  read. 

Note:  Because  the  social  situation  soon  proves  to  the  ordinary  child  that  books  and  papers 
contain  desirable  material — stories,  etc.,  which  his  companions  have  not  always  time  to  read  or 
tell  him — he  becomes  possessed  by  a  desire  to  read,  and  knowing  that  this  art  is  taught  in  school, 
the  five-  or  six-year-old  child  urges  his  parents  to  let  him  go  to  school  to  learn  to  read. 

A.  Now  the  child's  first  need  is  for  an  eye  vocabulary. 

1.  Meaning  and  sounds  of  most  of  this  early  vocabulary  are  well  known, 

hence  child  needs  only  to  be  helped  to  see  relation   between 
forms  and  meanings. 
a.  Vocalization  an  aid  at  first,  and  whenever  meaning  is  evanes- 
cent. 

(1)  Permitted  when  needed. 

(2)  Child  soon  led  to  inhibit  vocalization. 

(a)  To  save  time  by  going  directly  from  form  to  mean- 
ing (economy). 

(b)  To  keep  from  disturbing  others  (politeness). 

(c)  Because   more   discriminating   thinking  can   be   done 

with   finer  movements  as  an  accompaniment   (cul- 
ture). 

2.  Certain  conventions  now  become  a  help. 

a.  Spelling.  b.  Phonics. 

c.  Sentence  form — capital  to  mark  beginning  and  period  or  ques- 

tion-mark to  indicate  the  end. 

d.  The  conventional  use  of  certain  groups  of  words. 

(1)  I  am,  You  are,  We  were,  etc. 

(2)  A  boy  runs,  Boys  run,  etc. 

(3)  Come,  came,  am  coming,  etc. 

(4)  By,  on,  under,  etc. 

(5)  Once  upon  a  time;  lived  happily  ever  after. 

B.  Sharing  with  others  what  he  has  gathered  gives  the    child  greater  eye 

fluency  but  it  also  leads  him  to  express  differences  in  meaning  and 
hence  to  think  more  discriminatingly. 
1.  A  pupil's  attempts  to  make  the  picture  clear,  the  meaning  carry,  the 
several  ideas  stand  out,  the  joke  appreciated,  the  emotion  felt,  pro- 
duce variations  in  and  control  of  pitch,  tone-quality,  time,  and 
force. 

Note:  Work  on  emphasis,  inflection,  grouping,  pausing,  etc.,  employed  for  the  sake  of  giv- 
ing the  listener  pleasure  or  knowledge,  will  eliminate  mere  word  pronouncing  as  an  ideal  of  reading. 

2.  The  reaction  of  good  oral  reading  upon  silent  reading  is  soon  seen  in — 
a.  Love  of  reading — the  acquisition  of  the  reading  habit. 


*  Illustrations  in  "A  Stepdaughter  of  the  Prairie,"  pp.  7,  15,  98,  etc. 


230  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

b.  The  selection  of  better  literature,  because  more  easily  appre- 

ciated than  before. 

c.  The  use  of  supplementary  or  reference  material  in  other  school- 

work. 
3.  The  effect  is  also  noted  upon  oral  and  written  speech — 

a.  In  greater  freedom.  c.  In  sentence  structure. 

b.  In  better  organization  of  ideas.  d.  In  vocabulary. 

That  is,  the  pupil  has  something  to  say,  and  says  it  more  fluently,  co- 
herently, and  accurately,  than  before. 
V.  The  child  wants  to  write.  True,  the  child  does  not  feel  so  strongly  the  social 
pressure  for  this  mode  of  expression  as  he  does  for  oral  language,  but  since 
it  is  so  important  in  adult  life  and  yet  can  be  acquired  best  in  childhood, 
parents  and  teachers  must  contrive  motives,  if  natural  ones  prove  insuf- 
ficient. 

A.  Natural  motives. 

1.  Keeping  records  of  nature-study  observations,  etc. 

2.  Keeping  records  of  events,  recipes,  games,  etc. 

3.  Writing-  letters  to  real  absentees. 

a.  Father  when  away.  c.  A  sick  schoolmate. 

b.  Grandparents.  d.  A  doll. 

4.  Real  invitations,  requests,  etc. 

5.  Self-expression.  (As  in  oral  language,  after  a  start  has  been   made, 

children  write  just  for  the  love  of  writing,  not  for   communica- 
tion, especially  if  they  are  not  ridiculed  or  repressed.) 

a.  Rhymes — "poetry."  d.  Puns,  jokes,  etc. 

b.  Stories.  e.  Diaries  or  memory  books,  etc. 

c.  Plays. 

B.  Contrived  motives  which  may  be  made  to  seem  "natural"  to  the  child. 

1.  School  seat-work. 

2.  Letters  and  invitations. 

3.  Note-books. 

4.  Exhibit  work. 

5.  Community  problems  in  which  each  shares. 

a.  A  room  bulletin. 

b.  A  room  newspaper  or  other  periodical. 

c.  A  room  play,  etc. 
C. 


cleans  to  be  used. 

1.  Necessary. 

2.  Valuable. 

a.  Penmanship. 

a.  Dictionary  work  (above  third  grade). 

b.  Spelling. 

b.  Much  reading. 

c.  Paragraphing. 

c.  Literary  interpretation. 

d.  Punctuation. 

d.  Simple  rhetoric — as  needed. 

e.  Grammar — as  needed. 

B.— BEGINNING-READING  LESSON-PLANS. 

1— IMPERATIVE-SENTENCE  PLAN. 

Aim. — To  show  children  that  there  is  (to  them)  a  new  method  of  expressing 
thought.  To  help  children  differentiate  the  written  symbols  for  at  least  three 
thoughts. 


Helps  on  English. — Reading-Plans.  231 

Preparation. — (1)  Toys  and  well-known  articles  on  teacher's  desk.  (2)  Chil- 
dren examine  these  objects  and  talk  about  what  may  be  done  with  each.  (3) 
Children  tested  to  prove  that  names  are  known  no  matter  where  objects  are 
placed.  Teacher  may  say,  Do  you  think  the  names  of  these  objects  hard  to 
remember?  The  written  names  are  just  as  different  as  the  spoken  words,  and 
if  your  eyes  are  bright,  you  will  make  no  mistakes  in  the  game  we  shall  play. 
I  am  going  to  tell  you  to  do  something  with  one  of  these  objects.  Who  wants 
to  do  it?     All?     Then  watch. 

Development. — (1)  The  teacher  writes  on  blackboard  one  action-imperative 
sentence — perhaps,  Beat  the  drum.  (2)  Can  any  one  do  what  I  have  told  you  to 
do?  If  some  one  can,  let  him;  if  no  one  can,  teacher  may  do,  some  older  child 
may  do,  or  teacher  may  whisper  the  thought  to  one  child,  who  then  does.  (Value 
of  each?)  (3)  Others  watch  the  act  performed.  Then  teacher  rewrites  the  sen- 
tence, calling  on  some  one  else  to  do.  She  may  write  it  four  or  five  times  if  she 
thinks  it  wise  to  do  so.  If  not  necessary,  pointing  to  the  sentence  already  writ- 
ten will  answer.  (No  oral  reading.  Why?)  (4)  In  a  similar  way  teacher  in- 
troduces, for  example,  Wave  the  flag,  and  March  to  the  door,  or  simply  March.  (5) 
Teacher  now  writes  any  one  sentence  and  child  called  upon  acts  the  thought. 
(Leave  the  "patterns"  for  a  time.  Why?)  (6)  Later  erase  "patterns"  and  child 
responds  at  sight  of  familiar  form. 

Children  have  discovered  that  written  symbols  express  thought.  If  this  has 
aroused  interest,  the  children  now  desire  to  master  these  written  symbols  which 
open  a  wide  field  of  pleasure.  These  three  sentences  are  probably  conquered, 
and,  later,  when  analyzed,  form  the  basis  of  many  lessons.  The  teacher  may 
test  pupils  in  many  ways — she  may  act,  or  may  whisper  to  one  child  to  act,  or  one 
child  may  act  whichever  story  he  wishes  as  another  points  to  the  corresponding 
sentence.  The  teacher  may  point  to  a  part  of  the  sentence  and  say,  for  example, 
(if  Beat  is  used,)  Do  this  (beat)  to  something  else.  Touch  this  (drum  pointed  to). 
Take  something  besides  this  (flag  pointed  to)  and  (writing  or  pointing  to  the 
word)  wave  it.     Play  that  you  have  drums  (written)  and  beat  (written)  them. 

Application. — The  above  analysis  is  a  form  of  application,  but  the  pedagogical 
application  is  to  come  in  future  lessons. 

The  word-drill  should  be  separate  from  the  reading-lesson,  since,  from  the 
first,  we  wish  the  children  to  feel  that  reading  is  a  distinct  process  of  thought 
getting  or  giving,  and  should  in  no  way  be  hampered  by  the  mechanics.  Never- 
theless, the  need  of  carefully  planned  word-drills  cannot  be  too  strongly  empha- 
sized. Unless  children  have  a  fairly  long  list  of  words  which  are  known  instantly 
at  sight,  all  future  work  is  hindered.  These  drills  should,  however,  never  be  con- 
ducted at  such  time  nor  in  such  manner  as  to  rob  the  words  of  their  thought  con- 
tent, for  if  pronunciation  is  made  the  sole  aim  of  the  work,  the  children's  future 
is  in  great  peril,  since  they  will  probably  become  mere  word-callers.  In  a  lesson 
of  the  sort  just  discussed,  the  children  might  be  asked  to  do  whatever  the  teacher 
writes,  if  verbs  are  being  drilled  upon;  to  touch  the  object,  when  a  noun  is  writ- 
ten or  indicated;  to  draw  pictures  beside  the  nouns  written  low  on  blackboard, 
or.  to  lay  pictures  or  real  objects  beside  them;  to  lay  words  (written  plainly  on 
cardboard  slips)  upon  the  right  objects;  to  do  all  that  it  says  in  the  story  in  which 
"Run"  occurs  (Run  to  the  door,  for  example);  to  watch  the  words  erased  and  do 
or  show  what  the  words  symbolize. 

In  continuance  of  this  class  word-drill,  the  pupils  may  for  scat-work  match 
pictures  of  flags,  drums,  boys,  etc.,  with  the  proper  words  (written  on  slips  of 
cardboard);  or  these  words  may  be  arranged  to  look  like  the  stories  on  the  black- 
board.    Children  may  tear  or  cut  or  draw  pictures  to  illustrate  these  stories. 


232  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

Before  leaving  this  plan  of  teaching,  a  few  more  sentences,  excellent  for  first 
lessons,  are  appended: 

1.  Ring  the  bell.  9.   Hop.  17.  Take  three  steps. 

2.  Clap  your  hands.  10.  Jump.  18.  Go  to  sleep. 

3.  Shake  your  head.  11.   Run.  19.  Jump  the  rope. 

4.  Fold  your  arms.  12.   Sit.  20.  Beat  the  drum. 

5.  Wave  the  flag.  13.   Sing.  21.  Hold  the  doll. 

6.  Open  the  door.  14.  Stand.  22.  Roll  the  ball. 

7.  Toss  the  bean  bag.  15.  Laugh.  23.  Blow  the  whistle. 

8.  Touch  your  nose.  16.   Listen.  24.  Read  the  book. 

(Query:  Why  would  it  not  be  well  to  give  both  1  and  22  the  first  day?) 
The  following  sentences  will  also  throw  some  light  upon  how  new  words  are 
gradually  introduced  for  a  month  or  more,  and  what  the  children  can  finally  do: 

1.  Ring  the  little  bell.  4.»Roll  the  large  ball. 
Ring  the  large  bell.  Roll  the  largest  ball. 
Ring  the  bright  bell.  Roll  the  small  ball. 
Ring  the  silver  bell.                                                              Roll  the  smallest  ball. 

Roll  the  rubber  ball. 

2.  Knock  on  the  door  (later,  the  window).  Roll  the  woolen  ball. 
Look  out  of  the  door  (later,  the  window).  Roll  the  blue  ball. 
Walk  to  the  door  (later,  the  window).  Roll  the  red  ball. 
Touch  the  door  (later,  the  window).                          5.  Take  the  ball. 

Hide  the  ball. 
Find  the  ball. 

3.  Hold  up  your  hands.  Bring  me  the  ball. 
Raise  your  hands.                                                                 Put  the  ball  away. 
You  may  clap  your  hands.                                                 Toss  the  ball. 
Hold  up  both  hands.  Bounce  the  ball. 
Hold  up  one  hand.                                                                Throw  the  ball. 
Hold  up  your  right  hand.                                                   Catch  the  ball. 
Hold  up  your  left  hand.                                                      Get  the  ball. 

Kick  the  foot-ball. 

The  new  words  which  are  thus  necessarily  introduced  may  be  repeated  in 
still  other  combinations,  thus: 

Roll  the  cylinder.  Throw  the  bean-bag. 

Toss  the  sphere.  Catch  the  hoop. 

Or,  making  longer  stories. 

Hold  the  red  ball  in  your  left  hand. 
Touch  the  wall  with  both  hands. 

2.— THE  LITTLE  RED  HEN.* 

This  blackboard  lesson  uses  the  story  of  The  Little  Red  Hen,  already  familiar 
to  pupils  through  the  language  hour.  Children  have  pictured  the  story,  acted 
the  parts,  and  have  told  it  several  times.  Familiar  pictures  of  the  characters 
are  on  large  cards;  script  names  of  the  animals  arc  on  smaller  cards,  easily  clip- 
ped on  to  the  picture-cards,  and  as  easily  removed.  Several  recitation  periods 
are  necessary  for  the  entire  story.  The  teacher  asks,  "Shall  we  make  a  read- 
ing-lesson of  our  story,  The  Little  Red  Hen?"  (The  children  agree,  and  the 
teacher  writes  the  heading  on  the  blackboard.) 

"About  whom  is  our  lesson  to  be?"  (Answers  will  not  be  indicated  except 
where  the  desired  answer  could  not  be  known.) 

"Find  the  little  hen's  picture.  Put  it  under  the  title.  What  does  the  title 
say?" 


*  This  and   the   remaining  plans  are  based  on  Literature,  and  are  adaptations  of  observed 
lessons  taught  by  Miss  Helen  Ford  Staples,  Winona. 


Helps  on  English. — Reading-Plans.  233 

"What  did  the  little  red  hen  find?"  (Teacher  writes  answer  on  blackboard: 
"The  little  red  hen  found  a  seed.") 

"What  sort  of  seed  was  it?"     (Teacher  writes  answer:  "It  was  a  wheat-seed.") 

"Was  she  glad?  Why?  What  did  she  want  to  do  with  the  seed?"  (Teacher 
writes:  "She  wanted  to  plant  the  seed.")  "Why  did  she  want  to  plant  it?  Why 
didn't  she  eat  that  seed?"  ("It  wasn't  enough;  she  wanted  more.")  Teacher 
shows  a  stalk  on  which  is  a  head  of  wheat,  and  asks,  "Would  one  seed,  if  planted, 
make  a  head  like  this?  Let's  count  the  seeds  on  this  stalk."  (Teacher  counts 
with  children,  who  incidentally  see  a  need  for  counting).  "Twelve  seeds!  Then 
it  would  pay  the  little  red  hen  to  wait."  (Teacher  points  to  the  words  children 
know  and  children  say  them.) 

"Let  us  read  all  of  our  story."  The  teacher  points  to  the  sentences,  asking 
questions  similar  to  those  originally  asked.  She  calls  on  as  many  pupils  as  pos- 
sible. Then  she  asks  a  child  to  take  the  pointer  and  show  by  a  sweep  the  black- 
board sentence  that  tells  what  the  hen  found;  what  sort  of  seed  it  was;  what  she 
wanted  to  do  with  it. 

For  a  rest,  the  pupils  dramatize  the  story  as  far  as  given.  "Be  a  little  red 
hen,  James,  and  scratch  around  and  see  whether  you  can  find  a  seed."  If  James 
can't,  or  is  too  slow,  the  teacher  sends  some  other  little  red  hen  to  scratch — one 
who  can  find  a  seed. 

"How  does  she  act  when  she  finds  the  seed?  Does  she  know  at  once  what 
kind  it  is?  Is  she  glad  when  she  discovers  that  it  is  a  wheat-seed?  Be  the  little 
red  hen  when  she  finds  the  seed,  Lucy,  and  show  me  how  you  feel." 

"Don't  tell  me,  but  be  ready  to  point  to  and  read  the  story  that  says  what 
she  wanted  to  do  with  the  seed."  (John  does.)  "Did  she  decide  at  once  to 
plant  it?  What  did  she  say?"  (Teacher  writes  answer,  "Who  will  plant  the 
seed?")  "Who  answered  her?  Find  their  pictures."  (As  one  picture  after  the 
other  is  shown  by  a  child,  the  teacher  attaches  to  it  the  card  that  contains  the 
correct  name.  "Were  these  animals  ready  to  work?  What  sort  of  pig  was  he?" 
(Teacher  writes  "pig"  on  blackboard  but  does  not  speak  the  word.)  "What  did 
he  answer?"  (Teacher  writes,  "  'Not  I,'  said  the  pig,"  letting  pupils  read  the 
known  parts  as  she  writes;  she  supplies  the  other  words.)  "What  sort  of  cat 
(from  now  on  the  teacher  writes  every  word  she  can  for  children  to  say,  and  writes 
the  same  word  as  often  as  possible  to  fix  its  form)  was  the  cat?"  "What  did  the 
cat  answer?"     ("Not  I,"  said  the  cat.) 

"Now  we  have  one  other  animal  who  lived  in  the  yard  with  the  little  red 
hen.  Find  his  picture.  What  sort  of  dog  was  he?  (Lazy.)  What  did  the  dog 
say  to  the  little  red  hen?"     ("Not  I,"  said  the  dog.) 

"Who  spoke  then?  What  did  the  hen  say?  ("I  will,  then.")  And  did  she?" 
(Yes.)     Probable  end  of  first  recitation. 

Suitable  seat-work  to  clinch  presented  work  is  assigned;  for  example,  match- 
ing words,  hen,  pig,  etc.,  with  small  pictures  of  these  animals;  laying  pegs  to  rep- 
resent wheat  on  a  wheat-stalk;  tracing  with  colored  crayons  over  large  script 
words  taken  from  the  story;  cutting  the  story  from  paper;  matching  loose  hecto- 
graphed  sentences  with  similar  sentences  pasted  on  a  card,  with  space  left  after 
each  sentence  for  the  loose  one. 

Second  recitation. — The  teacher  reviews  preceding  work  and  has  a  brief  word- 
drill  by  some  device  fitting  the  story  and  the  children's  needs.  She  then  helps 
pupils  recall  and  think  about  the  next  unit  in  the  story.  "Now  the  wheat  has 
grown  up.  Here  it  is  (show  wheat-stalks).  What  does  the  little  red  hen  (chil- 
dren say,  as  before,  whenever  teacher  writes  words)  want  done  next?     What  does 


234  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

she  ask?  Would  the  lazy  dog  cut  it?  What  did  he  say?  Would  the  lazy  cat 
cut  it?  What  did  she  say?  And,  'Not  I,'  said  the  pig.  What  does  the  hen  say 
then?" 

The  development  of  a  unit  is  followed  by  reading,  dramatization,  word  and 
phrase  drills  if  needed,  and  more  reading,  according  to  the  time  available.  Seat- 
work  should  repeat  whatever  sort  pupils  most  need,  as  shown  by  their  preceding 
work.  Perhaps  some  new  forms  can  be  added,  such  as  arranging  hectographed 
sentences  on  a  card  so  that  the  card  looks  like  the  story  on  the  blackboard.  After 
this  has  been  done  several  times,  so  that  children  are  quite  proficient  in  it,  the 
slips  may  be  pasted  on  to  the  card  and  the  card  used  for  reading  in  class  and 
then  carried  home  to  be  read  to  mother  and  father.  Or,  the  sentences  may  be 
hectographed  with  spaces  for  the  important  words.  These  words  are  on  sepa- 
rate slips  and  are  to  be  inserted  in  the  blank  spaces.  Children  may  look  at  a 
correct  complete  copy  on  a  card  or  on  the  blackboard. 

The  several  other  units  of  the  story  may  be  developed  in  successive  recita- 
tions, the  number  depending  upon  the  needs  of  the  class. 

To  keep  the  situations  real  all  through,  the  children  must  enter  into  the  ex- 
periences dramatically.  For  example,  in  the  final  scene  the  teacher  says:  "The 
wheat  flour  is  ready  to  be  made  into  bread.  All  may  make  bread.  Think  of 
the  bowl.  Are  you  mixing  it  well?  Are  you  kneading  it,  or  using  a  bread-mixer? 
Which  did  the  hen  do?  Have  you  put  it  into  the  pan?  Is  it  ready  for  the  oven? 
Put  it  into  the  oven.  Now  it  is  done.  Take  it  out.  Does  it  look  nice?  Would 
you  like  to  eat  it?  Who  else  would?  [All  the  lazy  animals.]  Who  does  eat  it? 
What  does  she  say  before  that?" 

3— THE  GINGERBREAD  BOY. 

This  lesson  illustrates  the  use  of  a  hand-made  chart.  The  teacher  should 
have  had  baked  a  fine  gingerbread  boy  just  like  the  one  described  in  the  story 
and  pictured  in  whatever  primer  contains  the  story,  especially  if  that  primer 
is  to  be  used  later.  She  should  also  have  large,  interesting  pictures,  from  some 
good  magazines  or  advertisements,  of  the  characters  in  the  story — an  old  man, 
an  old  woman,  a  pig,  a  cat,  a  dog,  a  hen,  and  a  fox.  Each  should  be  mounted 
on  a  separate  sheet.  Loose  cards  containing  the  printed  names  of  the  characters 
should  be  available  for  clipping  to  or  laying  beside  the  pictures  as  needed. 

The  entire  story,  in  the  form  desired  by  the  teacher,  should  be  printed  on 
large  sheets  of  manila  paper  or  tagboard,  with  the  usual  primary  printing-press 
sold  by  all  dealers  in  primary  supplies.  (All  this  can  be  prepared  in  the  summer 
vacation.)  Besides  the  complete  story,  now  to  be  spoken  of  as  the  "chart,"  the 
teacher  should  make  two  extra  sets,  printed  in  such  a  way  that  of  the  first  the 
sentences  can  be  cut  apart  and  in  the  second  the  sentences  can  easily  be  cut  into 
words  and  phrases  as  will  be  seen  to  be  necessary. 

It  will  also  be  well  to  have  in  smaller  type,  printed  sentences  and  words 
needed  for  seat-work.  If  the  teacher  hasn't  a  small  press  (bought  at  any  ten- 
cent-store  for  ten  or  fifteen  cents),  she  may  find  the  Congdon  gummed  words 
valuable. 

The  teacher  begins  by  showing  the  pupils  the  chart  (about  five  sheets)  and 
the  pictures  of  the  characters.  She  then  tells  the  story  exactly  as  it  appears  on 
the  chart,  embellishing  wherever  necessary  by  showing  pictures,  having  pupils 
relate  their  own  experiences  which  these  recall,  etc.  As  she  tells  the  story,  she 
points  to  the  chart  sentences  (not  words)  in  sweeping  movements.     Perhaps  the 


Helps  on  English. — Reading-Plans.  235 

first  telling  will  occupy  all  of  one  recitation.  She  plans  each  time  to  stop  at  the 
natural  end  of  a  unit.  The  second  day  she  retells  the  story,  pointing  as  before, 
but  asking  pupils  to  help  "read"  wherever  they  remember  what  was  said  or 
described.  This  is  interspersed  with  dramatizations  to  get  the  feeling  of  the 
experiences,  and  the  sequence  of  thought.  Seat-work  to  accentuate  this  sequence 
and  to  keep  alive  the  interest  and  the  emotional  attitudes  should  be  given. 

By  the  end  of  the  third  recitation  certain  phrases  and  sentences  will  have 
been  repeated  often  enough  to  begin  to  be  recognized  by  pupils.  The  first  page 
only  may  be  reread.  The  duplicate  page  may  be  set  up  beside  the  original.  On 
the  new  page  the  children  may  point  to  the  lines  as  the  teacher  or  some  child 
reads  them  from  the  original  copy. 

The  teacher  then  takes  big  scissors,  and,  before  the  children,  cuts  the  second 
card  into  sentences.  They  are  then  laid  beside  the  uncut-card  sentences  to  see 
which  one  is  like  another.  When  similar  ones  are  found,  they  are  read  aloud — 
the  one  on  the  chart  known  by  its  location  in  the  story,  the  one  on  the  card  be- 
cause it  is  like  the  chart  one.  To  match  and  read  the  other  sentences  will  be 
counted  great  fun.  The  chart  page  becomes  a  dictionary  of  reference  only,  and 
children  enjoy  reading  the  card  sentences. 

Reading  from  memory,  dramatizing,  drill,  and  seat-work,  are  parts  of  each 
recitation.  The  seat-work  must  be  with  print  also,  and  if  the  teacher  can't 
have  some  sheets  of  the  same  story  in  smaller  type,  she  should  let  the  seat- work 
emphasize  other  lines  of  work  than  recognition  of  form,  until  she  comes  to  her 
cut-up  sentences  and  words. 

The  remaining  pages  of  the  chart  should  be  similarly  treated,  each  being  easier 
than  the  preceding,  as  familiar  phrases  become  better  known. 

The  teacher  calls  attention  to  form  only  when  such  knowledge  will  help  the 
thought.  "He  means  the  gingerbread  boy;  find  another  he."  "Can  you  tell 
whether  a  man  or  a  woman  speaks  the  next  time?"  "I  stands  up  straight  and 
tall.  The  gingerbread  boy  feels  tall  when  he  boasts  of  how  he  can  run  away 
from  everybody.     The  cat  carries  her  tail  up,  as  most  cats  do,  in  fact." 

The  teacher  works  also  to  secure  the  children's  complete  participation  in  the 
experiences.  "Each  animal  wants  to  eat  the  gingerbread  boy.  Would  you  like 
to  eat  him?  Does  he  look  good  to  eat?  Take  a  bite  (pretend);  does  it  taste 
good?  Now  we  need  an  old  woman.  Be  the  old  woman.  Who  will  take  the 
part  of  the  little  old  man?  Be  little.  Be  old.  He  has  helped  many  people. 
Now  he  needs  help.  He  wishes  he  had  a  boy.  Why  can  the  gingerbread  boy 
outrun  the  old  man  and  the  old  woman?" 

After  full  sentences  have  been  read,  the  sentences  can  be  cut  up  into  words 
and  phrases  to  be  matched  with  those  in  sentences,  as  sentences  were  matched 
with  the  chart. 

At  this  point  the  seat-work  can  consist  of  building  sentences  from  words;  of 
"cutting"  the  characters  and  matching  them  with  words;  of  arranging  the  char- 
acters in  order  as  they  pursued  the  gingerbread  boy,  either  represented  by  words 
or  pictures  or  both;  or  of  any  of  the  suggestions  given  before  that  are  still  usable. 

The  chart  with  its  pictures  should  be  kept  intact  for  use  in  reviews  or  when- 
ever children  forget  some  words  learned  there  in  context. 

After  the  vocabulary  has  been  mastered,  the  cut-up  words  can  be  used  to 
rebuild  a  slightly  changed  form  of  telling  the  story;  but,  though  the  form  be 
changed,  the  sequence  of  thought  must  be  kept  the  same. 

The  reading  of  this  newly  arranged  old  material  is  also  fine  review. 


236  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

4— THE  KEY  TO  THE  KING'S  GARDEN. 

Note:  The  treatment  of  each  of  these  lessons  is  for  beginning  pupils.  Adaptations  of  the 
plans  must  be  made  if  they  are  used  later  in  the  year.  Some  teachers  do  not  have  text-books  enough 
to  permit  their  use  from  the  beginning,  in  which  case  blackboard  and  chart  lessons  will  make 
book  work  comparatively  easy.  The  following  lesson  is  meant  for  pupils  who  have  been  in  school 
only  a  few  days  and  are  given  the  book  for  at  least  one  reading  recitation  a  day.  If  possible  there 
should  be  several  short  reading  periods  daily,  some  of  which  can  be  devoted  to  "direct-experi- 
ence" lessons  and  others  to  literature  lessons.  Of  course  these  lessons  are  merely  suggestive  and 
are  not  the  only  good  stories  to  be  used. 

The  teacher  puts  pupils  into  the  atmosphere  of  the  story,  which  they  have 
heard  told,  as  was  the  plan  in  the  preceding  lessons.  She  questions  as  to  pictures 
seen  when  she  mentions  king,  palace,  queen,  king's  garden,  key,  gate;  but  she  does 
nothing  of  word  teaching,  choosing  to  let  pupils  first  get  their  words  from  the 
book. 

Books  are  passed  and  children  are  shown  a  book  open  at  the  first  picture. 
"Find  the  same  picture — that  of  a  man  who  discovers  a  key.  Who'll  be  first 
to  find  the  place?  Now  lay  these  bookmarks  (strips  of  stiff  paper)  on  the  page 
just  under  the  picture.  As  some  one  reads,  move  your  bookmarks  down  to 
keep  the  place;  I  shall  watch  to  see  who  do  this  and  so  follow  the  reading." 

"What  does  the  man  see?  What  does  he  say?  Was  he  glad?  Make  me 
know  just  how  glad  he  was!  [Children  read  (that  is,  repeat  from  memory)  The 
key!  The  key  to  the  king's  garden!]  Perhaps  the  key  has  been  lost  a  long  time, 
and  every  body  is  glad  that  it  is  found.  All  show  how  glad  you  are  (moving 
your  bookmarks  down  as  you  read)!" 

Teacher  shows  a  card  on  which  the  word  key  is  printed,  saying,  "Here  is  the 
key.  Pretend  to  unlock  the  door  with  it.  Is  there  anything  by  which  we  can 
remember  key?  (Children  can't  think  of  anything,  so  the  teacher  suggests  that 
k  looks  something  like  a  key,  with  its  stem  and  its  notches.)  Put  your  book- 
marks under  a  key  in  the  book.  Under  another  key.  Whose  key  was  this? 
What  did  it  unlock?  (Teacher  shows  card  with  word  garden  on  it.)  Is  there 
anything  to  help  us?"  A  child  suggests  that  the  word  looks  like  a  garden  with 
flowers  in  it,  one  tall  flower.  Teacher  accepts,  though  the  likeness  isn't  striking. 
Several  children  are  now  called  on  to  read  the  whole  page,  others  moving  book- 
marks down.  (This  teaches  children  that  the  story  is  on  the  page  and  can  be 
followed,  though  of  course  no  child  is  studying  the  words.) 

"Turn  the  page.  What  is  the  man  doing  here?  I  would  like  a  man  who 
sells  things  on  the  street.  Leslie,  be  the  man.  What  have  you  to  sell?  [Pota- 
toes.] Call  so  I  can  hear  you,  though  I'm  in  the  house.  What  do  you  charge? 
I'll  take  some.  Let's  hear  another  man.  Frank!"  (I  sell  apples!  At  five 
cents  a  peck!  Apples!  Apples!)  "Good.  I  can  hear  that,  and  your  apples  are 
very  cheap.  I'll  take  a  peck."  The  teacher  secures  just  enough  responses  to 
get  pupils  into  the  atmosphere  of  selling  and  calling  out  the  articles  for  sale,  then 
turns  to  the  book  again.  "What  is  the  man  selling?"  The  teacher  now  adds  a 
card  containing  the  word  sell.  "Who'll  be  the  man?  What  must  you  have  in 
your  hand?  Find  it.  [Child  selects  key  from  the  cardboard  words.]  Now  cry 
it  for  sale."  (Child  reads,  "I  sell  the  key  to  the  King's  garden!")  Other  chil- 
dren cry  it.     At  last  the  teacher  says,  "I'd  like  to  buy  it.     What  do  you  charge?" 

"Find  key,  garden,  sell."  The  teacher  adds  the  card  containing  king's,  and 
again  has  children  find  words  as  she  calls  for  them — words  laid  face  up  on  the 
floor  or  stood  on  the  blackboard  ledge  where  all  can  see.  As  the  words  are  found 
the  teacher  pins  them  to  a  stiff  cardboard  or  bulletin-board  which  stands  near  her. 

"Look  at  the  next  picture.  Recall  the  story.  What  is  for  sale  this  time?" 
(Answer,  "The  string  that  held  the  key.")     The  teacher  adds  card  with  word 


Helps  on  English. — Reading-Plans.  237 

string  on  it  to  others  on  the  bulletin-board  and  suggests  that  string  can  be  re- 
membered because  the  first  letter  looks  like  a  piece  of  string,  and  the  last  letter 
is  also  a  sort  of  curly  string.  All  words,  quickly  pointed  to,  to  be  named  by 
children. 

"Who  is  ready  to  be  the  saleswoman  on  this  page?"  Several  children  in 
turn,,  act  and  read,  "/  sell  the  string  that  held  the  key  to  the  king's  garden!"  while 
others  move  their  bookmarks  down.  The  teacher  commends  those  who  do,  say- 
ing she  sees  who  are  reading. 

"Make  the  people  at  work  in  the  kitchen  hear  you."  (Motive  for  clear  call- 
ing of  the  wares.)  Probable  end  of  first  recitation.  Seat-work  to  fit  the  lesson 
follows.     See  suggestions  in  lessons  above  and  on  pp.  283-292. 

As  the  remainder  of  the  story  is  taken  up  in  succeeding  recitations,  the 
teacher  helps  children  get  cues  for  the  idea-words,  has  dramatization  of  the 
parts  to  create  reality,  urges  constant  following  of  the  book  until  pupils  actually 
do  read  from  the  book  and  do  not  merely  repeat  the  story  from  memory,  gives 
word-drill  sufficient  to  fix  the  needed  words,  and  plans  seat-work  to  make  vivid 
the  experiences.  In  daily  recitations,  she  holds  pupils  to  reading  what  the  book 
says,  not  just  what  it  means,  giving  as  one  motive,  "Read  just  what  the  book 
says,  so  you  can  play  it  right,"  and  as  another,  "I'll  know  that  you  are  reading 
if  you  use  just  the  words  in  the  book." 

C— READING-PLANS  FOR  OLDER  GRADES. 

1— LESSONS  FROM  "VIKING  TALES."*  (Third  Grade.) 

(As  taught  by  Miss  Frances  M.  Smith,  Minneapolis.) 

Note:  Parts  only  of  several  lessons  are  given,  because  of  lack  of  space.  These  parts  show, 
in  general,  thought  methods  of  teaching  reading;  and,  in  particular,  the  following  points:  (1)  That 
the  setting  of  good  specific  aims  is  the  best  means  of  holding  pupils  a  long  time  on  a  bit  of  subject- 
matter  without  loss  of  interest;  (2)  that  children  can  find  central  ideas  and  name  them;  (3) 
that  execution  is  the  finest  sort  of  check  on  correct  thinking;  (4)  that  children  can  supplement 
thought;  and  (5)  that  symbol  calling  can  be  controlled  by  the  thinking. 

First  illustration,  from  a  lesson  on  pp.  32-34. — The  following  specific  aims 
were  set  during  two  twenty-minute  recitations: 

(1)  Have  you  a  picture  of  this  farmer's  house?  Where  can  you  get  it? 
(Last  few  lines  on  p.  32  and  on  to  p.  33.)  Get  picture  of  just  how  the  farmer's 
house  looked.     (Children  read  silently.) 

(2)  Make  a  floor-plan  of  the  house  on  the  blackboard.  (One  child  drew  a 
straight  line  on  the  blackboard,  with  benches,  fire  place  in  middle,  and  more 
benches,  shown  in  one  row.)  Children  criticized  plan,  by  asking  of  the  maker, 
"How  many  sides  to  this  house?" 

Does  the  book  help  us  to  know  whether  the  benches  were  on  only  one  side? 
(Top  of  p.  33.)  Teacher  then  asked,  "Would  you  still  leave  it  this  way?"  (Child 
re-drew  it.) 

(3)  Where  shall  we  put  the  door?  (A  boy  finds  that  the  lines  say,  "The 
thralls  looked  down  the  feast  hall.") 

(4)  Find  a  name  for  pp.  32-34.  (Several  given;  all  good;  the  one  selected 
by  the  class  was,  "What  Olaf  and  his  Men  Did  at  the  Farmer's  House.")  (This 
aim  demanded  rapid  reading  of  these  pages.) 

(5)  Turn  back  to  p.  33.  Begin  at  "Ho,  thralls!"  and  stop  at  the  beginning 
of  the  last  paragraph.  What  were  the  men  doing  here?  (Joking.  Making  fun 
of  the  farmer.) 

*  By  Jennie  Hall,  Rand-McNally,  Chicago. 


238  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

(6)  They  were  doing  something  else  at  the  same  time.  Find  out.  (Waiting 
for  supper.     Warming  themselves.) 

(7)  Let  us  act  that  part.  What  must  we  know  first?  (How  many  people 
we  need.  Find  out.)  (As  children  answered  they  were  asked  to  prove  the 
answers  by  the  book;  for  example,  one  child  said  "twelve  thralls."  Others 
thought  she  was  wrong,  since  the  book  says,  "A  dozen  people"  sat  on  the  bench. 
The  first  child  read,  "  'Ho,  thralls!'  I  called  to  them,"  as  proof  that  the  "people" 
were  "thralls";  and  "Off  they  ran,"  as  a  further  verification  of  her  idea.) 

(8)  How  many  men  are  going  to  talk?     (Proved  by  reading  aloud.) 

(9)  After  Katherine,  who  was  told  to  do  so,  had  selected  the  characters  to 
talk  and  to  act,  the  teacher  said,  "Now  read  to  be  sure  each  of  you  knows  what 
to  do  and  to  say!" 

(10)  To  the  child  who  is  to  be  the  farmer,  "What  is  especially  important 
about  your  part?"  (To  let  my  face  show  how  surprised  I  am.)  "Yes,  and 
your  other  feelings,  too.  See  what  they  are.  I  shall  watch  your  face  as  you 
act,  to  find  out  just  how  you  feel." 

(11)  After  the  acting  and  various  criticisms  on  it  have  been  given,  "Who  can 
tease  the  farmer  more?"  (Children  supplement  the  thought  and  tease  in  the 
way  they  think  the  Vikings  did.) 

(12)  Just  what  things  did  Olaf  and  his  men  do?  (A  summary  called  for: 
Demanded  entrance.  Ordered  thralls  about.  Joked  or  teased  the  farmer. 
Warmed  themselves.     Waited  for  supper.     Ate  and  drank.) 

Second  illustration,  from  a  lesson  on  pp.  69-70. — A  few  of  the  directions  in  the 
assignment:  Be  ready  to  name  the  first  half  of  p.  70.  Be  ready  to  name  the 
second  half  of  p.  70.  Be  ready  to  dramatize  p.  70.  Tell  what  you  think  Harald's 
runes  might  have  said.  Make  up  a  joke  that  you  think  these  Vikings  might 
have  thought  funny. 

Two  examples  of  correcting  form  by  thought,  calling  no  attention  to  the  particu- 
lar words  miscalled:  A  child  read,  "Leaped  up  the  dirt."  "Does  that  make 
sense?  What  do  you  see  him  doing?"  (Making  the  dirt  into  a  mound.)  "Show 
us  that."     (Child  re-read  it  correctly.) 

Another  child  read,  "They  divided  the  spoils  into  two  piles."  (He  read 
"two"  when  the  book  said  "four."  )The  teacher  said,  "Frank  read  one  thing 
that  couldn't  have  been  true  according  to  what  follows.  How  many  people  re- 
ceived piles  of  spoils,  Frank?     Read  to  show  us." 

Third  illustration,  from  a  lesson  on  pp.  95-99. — To  show  the  number  of  spe- 
cific aims  set:  (1)  "We  are  ready  for  a  new  chapter;  what  is  its  name?"  (Har- 
ald  Goes  West  Over  Seas.)  "What  will  this  chapter  tell  us,  then?"  (Where 
Harald  went.)  (2)  "Read  to  the  place  where  Harald  really  goes.  Where  does 
he  go?  What  is  all  this  about?"  (The  reasons  for  his  going.)  (3)  "Read  the 
first  long  paragraph  on  p.  95,  and  get  just  the  first  reason."  (4)  "Read  again 
to  see  whether  there  are  any  reasons  you  do  not  understand."  (Some  discussed.) 
(5)  "Read  aloud  and  make  me  feel  why  they  wanted  to  leave."  (6)  Read  to 
find  out  just  where  they  went." 

Fourth  illustration,  from  an  "Assembly." — Dramatization  of  pp.  15-61. 

Pictures  1,  2,  3,  illustrate  a  play  which  the  B-4  class  gave,  the  play  being 
based  upon  work  done  in  the  reading-class.  The  name  of  the  play  was,  "Har- 
ald Made  King."  Harald  was  the  son  of  a  Viking  king  named  Halfdan.  After 
Half  dan's  death,  Harald  held  a  funeral-feast  at  which  he  took  a  king's  vow  and 
became  king. 


Helps  on  English. — Reading-Plans. 


239 


1.    EATING  IN  THE  DAYS  OF  THE  VIKINGS. 

Picture  1  illustrates  the  method  of  eating  in  the  time  of  the  Vikings.  The 
gymnasium  stools  represent  the  long  backless  benches  which  Vikings  used.  The 
trestles  and  boards  represent  the  tables  of  those  times.  Big  trays  and  platters, 
swords  and  daggers,  were  the  fashionable  dishes. 


2.    KING   HARALD,   THE    VIKING,   TAKING   OATH   TO   SUBDUE   HIS    FATHER'S   ENEMIES. 


Picture  2.  Harald  has  just  ordered  his  tables  removed  and  the  mead-horns 
to  be  passed.  He  is  now  making  a  king's  vow,  and  his  subjects  are  listening 
with  much  interest,  ready  to  drink  his  health  as  soon  as  he  finishes. 


240 


Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 


3.    THE  SKALD  SINGING   THE  PRAISES  OF 


THE  FATHER  OF  HARALD  THE   VIKING. 


Picture  3.  Harald  has  finished  making  his  vow.  He  has  now  taken  the  king's 
high  seat  which  shows  he  is  king.  The  skald,  wishing  to  please  the  king,  is  sing- 
ing of  Harald's  father,  King  Halfdan. 


While  the  thralls  removed  the  tables  after  the  feast,  the  men  told  funny 
stories  to  entertain  one  another.  At  the  end  of  each  story  the  Viking  men  ap- 
plauded and  showed  their  appreciation  by  loud  laughter. 

Since  the  reader  which  the  children  used  did  not  give  any  of  the  stories  which 
the  men  told,  it  left  the  field  open  to  the  children  to  imagine  what  stories  were 
told.  The  aim,  then,  was  for  the  children  to  tell  any  story  which  their  fancy 
led  them  to  tell,  so  long  as  it  was  in  harmony  with  Viking  life. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  stories  which  were  invented: 

Basil  B.'s  story:  When  I  started  out  for  the  feast  I  started  out  in  my  ship  and  the  ship  wouldn't 
go,  so  I  started  out  with  my  horse.  Then  my  horse  wouldn't  go,  so  I  had  to  buy  another  horse. 
When  I  got  half  way  to  the  feast  the  horse  heard  me  say  something  about  mead.  He  stopped  and 
I  guessed  he  wanted  some  mead.  So  I  got  off  and  made  a  horn  full  of  mead  and  gave  it  to  him. 
That's  the  reason  why  Audbiorn  and  I  came  late  to  the  feast.     [Applause  and  loud  laughter.] 

Sylvester  R.'s  story:  Well,  I'll  tell  you  a  story  of  what  happened  to  me  once.  I  was  fishing 
over  in  that  200-foot  river  one  day  and  had  my  feet  hanging  over  the  edge  of  the  boat  and  had  one 
of  those  pine-tree  branches  for  my  fish  pole  and  a  piece  of  skin  for  my  line.  I  was  lying  there  tak- 
ing it  easy  and  something  gave  a  little  jerk.  Then  I  pulled  hard  and  up  came  a  great  big  snake' 
with  a  large  head.  He  grabbed  me  right  in  the  ankle  and  I  hung  there  for  a  while  and  he  nearly 
pulled  me  out  of  the  boat,  only  I  grabbed  my  dagger  and  stabbed  him  right  in  the  head.  I  gave 
my  foot  a  little  jerk  and  threw  him  right  back  in  the  water  and  there's  only  a  little  scar  there 
where  he  bit  me.     [Applause  and  loud  laughs.] 

Gaylord  G.'s  story:  I'd  just  made  my  spear,  Foesfear.  I  went  in  the  blacksmith-shop  and  I 
made  my  spear-head.  Then  I  didn't  have  a  shaft,  so  I  put  on  my  skis  and  started  off  for  the 
woods.  I  was  going  down  here  and  I  jumped  across  that  200-foot  river,  that  you  were  talking 
about  and  when  I  got  across  I  saw  a  huge  rock  across  there,  and  going  up  to  it  I  saw  an  ash  tree 
on  top.  I  jumped  oil  my  skis  and  started  to  climb  up  the  ragged  edge  and  tore  my  cloak  a  little 
bit.  When  I  got  to  the  top  I  cut  down  the  ash  tree  and  trimmed  it  off.  Then  I  threw  my  ash 
trunk  down  the  rock  and  started  to  climb  down.  Then  when  I  got  near  the  bottom  I  jumped. 
Just  then  a  wolf  sprang  out  from  the  thicket  and  I  snatched  my  pole.  Swinging  it  around  my  head, 
I  was  trying  to  hit  the  wolf,  but  just  as  the  pole  got  on  the  opposite  side  from  the  wolf,  he  sprang 
at  me  and  got  me  by  the  wrist.     Just  then  I  happened  to  think  of  Foesfear  and  I  ran  it  into  his 


Helps  on  English. — Reading-Plans.  241 

head.  I  threw  the  wolf  back  into  the  woods.  Putting  on  my  skis,  I  started  off  home.  When 
I  got  home  Olaf  was  there  in  the  shop  and  he  asked  me  what  was  the  matter  with  my  wrist.  I 
told  him  it  was  nothing  but  a  little  wolf  scratch.  This  is  all  the  scar  there  is  left.  [Applause,  as 
before.  1 

The  following  are  some  greetings  which  the  little  girls  invented  as  they  took 
the  part  of  the  Viking  women  and  passed  the  mead  horns: 

To  the  king:   "Drink  this;  it  will  give  you  a  better  voice  to  make  your  vow." 

To  the  skald:   "Drink  this  mead;  it  will  give  you  a  better  tune  to  sing  your  song." 

To  a  visitor:  "Mead  is  good  for  a  strong  and  healthy  man." 

George  A.,  who  look  the  part  of  the  skald,  invented  his  tune  (a  sort  of  chant) 
and  the  following  words  for  his  song:  King  Halfdan  was  a  brave  man.  He 
fought  in  many  battles  and  won  every  one.  He  had  a  strong  arm,  a  heavy 
shield  and  a  strong  sword,  and  a  strong  mail-coat,  and  a  gold  helmet.  It  was  too 
bad  he  had  to  die,  for  every  man  loved  him.  All  the  kings  were  scared  of  him 
because  he  had  such  a  strong  arm.  He  had  the  best  horse  in  his  army  and 
every  man  loved  him  because  he  was  so  brave.  He  was  open  handed  and  made 
many  vows  and  all  his  vows  were  the  truth.  He  had  a  strong  arm  and  a  big 
shield.     It  was  too  bad  he  had  to  die,  because  every  man  loved  him. 

2.— A  FIFTH-GRADE  LESSON. 

THE  COAST-GUARD. 

Do  you  ask  me  what  I  am  seeing 

While  I  watch  the  embers  glow, 
And  list  to  the  wild  wind  howling 

As  it  drives  the  winter  snow? 
I  see,  away  to  the  eastward, 

The  line  of  a  storm-beat  coast, 
And  I  hear  the  tread  of  the  hurrying  waves, 

Like  the  tramp  of  a  mailed  host. 

And  up  and  down  in  the  darkness, 

And  over  the  frozen  sand, 
I  hear  the  men  of  the  coast-guard 

Pacing  along  the  strand, — 
Beaten  by  storm  and  tempest, 

And  drenched  by  the  pelting  rain, — 
From  the  shores  of  Carolina 

To  the  wind-swept  bays  of  Maine. 

No  matter  what  storms  are  raging, 

No  matter  how  wild  the  night, 
The  gleam  of  their  swinging  lanterns 

Shines  out  with  a  friendly  light. 
And  many  a  shipwrecked  sailor 

Thanks  God  with  his  gasping  breath, 
For  the  sturdy  arms  of  the  surfmen 

That  drew  him  away  from  death. 

And  so,  when  the  wind  is  wailing, 

And  the  air  grows  dim  with  sleet, 
I  think  of  the  fearless  watchers 

Pacing  along  their  beat. 
I  think  of  a  wreck,  fast  breaking 

In  the  surf  of  a  rocky  shore, 
And  the  life-boat  leaping  onward 

To  the  stroke  of  the  bending  oar. 


242  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

I  hear  the  shouts  of  the  sailors, 

The  boom  of  the  frozen  sail, 
And  the  crack  of  the  icy  halyards 

Straining  against  the  gale. 
"Courage!"  the  captain  trumpets, 

"They  are  sending  help  from  land!" 
God  bless  the  men  of  the  coast-guard 

And  hold  their  lives  in  His  hand! 

— Emily  Huntington  Miller. 

I.  Subject-Matter. 

(This  poem  was  selected  because  a  teacher  of  some  experience  asked  the 
writer  in  a  rather  despairing  tone,  what  could  be  done  with  such  material.) 

A.  Aim,  or  Aims:  (1)  To  help  pupils  know  what  experiences  come  to  other 

people;  (2)  to  help  them  recognize  bravery,  courage,  faithfulness  to  duty, 
etc.;  (3)  to  rejoice  in  just  reward;  (4)  to  help  them  see  how  scenes  fre- 
quently witnessed  may  be  preserved  in  word-pictures;  (5)  to  help  pupils 
become  brave  themselves  by  growing  to  appreciate  what  heroes  do  for 
us;  and  (6)  to  help  pupils  express  a  poet's  thought — read  well  orally. 

B.  Organization  of  Subject- Mailer:  This  poem,  written  by  an  author  who  had 

the  same  appreciation  we  all  feel  for  bravery,  and  who  had  the  added 
power  of  fine  expression,  may  be  divided  into  three  main  parts: 

1.  Lines  1-4.     Introduction.     Why  or  how  author  is  reminded  of  the 

scene. 

2.  Lines  5-38.     Description  of  sights  often  witnessed  on  seashore. 

a.  A  tempestuous  night. 

b.  Coast-guards  pacing  the  strand  (stanza  2). 

c.  Coast-guards  rescuing  shipwrecked  sailors  in   face   of  great 

danger  (stanza  3). 

d.  Tempest  on  land  should  remind  us  of  worse  tempest  on  coast; 

wreck  described  (stanzas  4  and  5). 

3.  Lines  39-40.     Conclusion.     Prayer  for  blessing  on  coast-guard. 

C.  Preparation  of  Material. 

1.  Of  such  as  will  be  used  if  necessary  during  development:  A  map  of 

the  Atlantic  seaboard;  some  pictures  of  wrecks;  pictures  of  ships, 
so  that  different  parts  can  be  recognized;  pictures  of  coast-guards 
in  their  work;  pictures  of  waves  in  a  storm. 

2.  Of  suggestions  for  preliminary  assignments  from  which  teacher  must 

select  what  her  individual  class  most  needs  (no  class  must  be  given 
all): 

a.  To  help  children  get  the  larger  thoughts — 

1.  Read  the  poem  through  to  find: 

What  it  is  about.  Where  the  story  is  located.  What 
different  characters  are  mentioned.  How  the  different 
characters  act,  dress,  etc.     What  season  of  the  year  it  is. 

2.  Think  about  the  story  and  try  to  tell: 

Why  the  author  saw  such  pictures.  Why  the  author 
pictures  such  a  scene  to  us.  Why  the  work  described  is 
a  noble  one.  (Do  you  believe  it  is?)  Why  God  is  asked 
to  bless  these  men. 

b.  To  help  children  get  word  content,  word  value,  and  word  pro- 

nunciation. 
1.  With  your  books  open,  find  and  think  over  the  meaning  of 
the  following  words  and  expressions: 


Helps  on  English. — Reading-Plans.  243 

The  embers  glow.  As  it  drives  the  snow.  Tread  of 
waves.  (Why  use  "tread?")  A  mailed  host.  The  coast- 
guard. Drenched  by  rain.  (Who  or  what  were?)  Wind- 
swept bays.  Friendly  light.  (Why  is  "friendly"  a  good 
word?)  Gasping  breath.  Sturdy  arms.  Surfmen.  Drew 
his  men  from  death.  Wind  is  wailing.  Air  grows  dim. 
(Why?)  Fearless  watchers.  (Why  "fearless"?)  Pacing. 
Beat — Note  the  fourth  line  of  second  stanza;  of  fourth 
stanza;  what  difference  in  words?  In  thought?  Surf. 
Rocky  shore.  (Why  is  "rocky"  consistent  here?)  Life- 
boat. Bending  oar.  (Why?)  The  captain  trumpets. 
Halyards.  Boom  of  frozen  sail.  Hold  their  lives  in  his 
hand, 
c.  To  help  children  get  images. 

1.  Indicate  all  the  lines  in  which  you  can  find  pictures  that 

might  be  painted.     Indicate  the  lines  in  which  are  scenes 
that  might  be  acted;  situations  that  might  be  described. 

2.  Or  reverse  this  (at  least  in  part)  by  asking  children  to  draw 

pictures;  to  be  ready  to  act  pictures;  to  try  to  describe 
pictures  found  in  lines  2,  3-4,  5-6,  9-14,  latter  half  of  18, 
19-20  added  to  9-14,  21-22,  23-24,  26,  27-28  added  to 
9-14  and  19-20,  29,  31-32,  33,  34-36,  37-38. 
II.  Method. 

A.  Aim  (specific)  may  be  one  or  all  of  the  following,  if  it  differs  at  all  from 

aim  of  subject-matter  division: 

1.  To  help  children  recognize  how  hard  it  is  to  do  one's  duty,  and  how 

much  we  admire  those  who  are  faithful  in  spite  of  discomforts  and 
danger. 

2.  To  relate  experiences  in  our  own  lives  to  situations  in  the  poem. 

3.  To  recognize  the  words  and  be  able  to  read  (aloud)  the  poem  with 

thoughtful  expression — to  give  others  the  meaning. 

B.  Preparation:  Of  children's  minds  (the  assignment  having  been  made  before 

and  the  children  having  studied  the  lesson): 

1.  Did  you  find  many  pictures  in  today's  lesson?     Read  the  lines  you 

selected,  Albert.  Hold  up  the  picture  you  made,  Marian,  and  let 
the  class  find  the  lines  to  fit  it.  (Marian,  allowed  to  call  on  a  child 
to  read,  approves  or  disapproves  the  selection.) 

2.  Did  you  find  any  hard  words?     Can  you  pronounce  them?     Teacher 

writes  one  by  one  and  calls  on  some  child  each  time  to  pronounce 

the  one  last  written: 

mailed  host  drenched  sturdy  halyards 

embers  gasping  surfmen  wailing 

If  any  stumble,  teacher  calls  on  several,  at  the  same  time  asking 

for  the  content  of  each  word.     Recall  a  few  questions  under  b  of 

assignment. 

3.  Which  of  the  questions  under  a  in  the  assignment  did  you  like  best? 

Answer  it.  Which  did  you  find  hardest?  Answer  that.  (Or, 
teacher  may  recall  any  or  all  she  deems  necessary.) 

C.  Development: 

1.  If  preparation  hasn't  made  thought  clear,  teacher  must  help  more 
here.     Show  materials  collected,  etc. 


244  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

2.  If  thought  is  clear,  and  words  are  so  well  known  that  oral  reading 

will  not  be  hampered,  the  teacher  has  left  only  the  problem  of 
arousing  the  children's  emotion,  so  that  the  oral  reading  will  be 
done  with  feeling  and  consequent  good  expression.  To  do  this  the 
following  thoughts  must  be  brought  out  clearly  in  relation  to  chil- 
dren's own  experiences: 

a.  Guarding — sheep    by   shepherds;    town    by   policemen;    sick 

people  by  nurses;  ocean  travelers  by  these  coast-guards. 

b.  Winter  fireside — if  children  have  never  seen  pictures  in  the 

embers,  they  may  have  done  so  in  the  summer  clouds,  or  in 
the  smoke.  Howling  winds  bring  what  thoughts  to  the 
author?     Why? 

c.  Seashore — recall  it  as  seen  by  children  in  summer;  waves; 

their  height,  movement,  frequency;  imagine  it  in  winter.  If 
never  seen,  recall  what  is  known — lake-shore,  pond,  river, 
creek,  tub  of  water  agitated.     Rocky  shore — bluffs,  etc. 

d.  Wreck — train  wreck;  tornado,  hurricane,  or  cyclone  and  its 

effects;  lightning  striking;  ships,  frozen  sail,  halyards,  cap- 
tain trumpets  (why?);  make  picture  clear. 

e.  Bravery — courage — faithfulness  to  duty  in  the  face  of  dis- 

comfort, drenching  rain,  pelting  sleet,  raging  storms.  If 
children  know  story  of  the  leak  in  the  dyke,  or  of  the  picket 
guards  in  war,  or  stories  of  colonial  children,  some  may  here 
be  recalled  briefly.  What  made  men's  arms  "sturdy"? 
Why  are  "fearless,"  "wakeful,"  and  "humane"  good  words 
to  use? 

f.  Make  children  feel — 

The  fearful  season.  The  relief  of  tjhe  sailors  and  travelers. 
The  bad  night.  The  deserved  blessing  for  duty  faith- 

The  heroic  acts.  fully  done. 

3.  Oral  reading  by  as  many  pupils  as  possible,  criticising  only  the  bring- 

ing out  of  the  thought — giving  pronunciations  where  necessary,  so 
as  not  to  impede  expression  or  thought.     Questions  should   be  of 
this  nature:  Is  that  picture  clear  to  us?     Can  John  make  it  clearer? 
Julius,  try  again  to  make  us  see  it.     Is  that  what  it  means  to  you, 
Lulu?     Why  didn't  he  make  it  stand  out?     Did  Mary  read  that 
better  than  she  read  yesterday?     Were  all  the  points  brought  out? 
Ray,  show  us  what  points  you  got  that  Arthur  didn't  emphasize. 
What  is  the  biggest  thought  in  those  lines?     Can  you  make  it  scent 
the  biggest?     Do  you  really  feel  it?     Then  show  us.     Do  you 
believe  it?     I'd  never  guess  it  from  your  reading.     Try  again. 
D.  Application:  No  immediate  application  is  necessary,  yet  the  teacher  could 
make  this  the  basis  of  painting  lessons — letting  pupils  paint  different  pic- 
tures to  illustrate  the  various  lines.     Or,  pupils  may  cut  out  and  carefully 
mount  suitable  pictures  for  this  purpose.     She  might  also  use  the  copying 
of  the  poem  for  penmanship  lessons;  the  committing  it  for  language  les- 
sons; the  hard  words  in  it  for  spelling  lessons;  and  all  might  then  be  ap- 
plied to  a  class  "booklet"  showing  the  poem  in  its  entirety,  followed  by 
single  lines  on  the  pictures  illustrating  them. 

The  teacher  should  also  take  pains  to  use  often  in  school  work  the 
thought  of  perseverance  or  faithfulness  to  duty  in  the  face  of  discom- 


Helps  on  English. — Language  and  Composition.       245 

forts,  saying,  for  illustration:  You  wouldn't  (or  would)  make  a  good 
coast-guard.  Why?  Suppose  the  coast-guards  had  given  up  because  it 
was  hard!  Are  you  going  to  give  up?  The  words  learned  will  come  up 
and  be  referred  to  in  many  future  lessons. 

D.— AIDS  IN  LANGUAGE  AND  COMPOSITION. 
1— FIFTH-GRADE  WORK  UPON  ONE  USE  OF  THE  APOSTROPHE. 

I.  Subject-Matter  (of  the  lesson-unit). 

A.  Aim  or  Need:  To  express  in  concise  written  form  the  fact  of  ownership. 

(School-room  conditions  make  it  necessary  to  subdivide  the  lesson-unit 
into  several  recitation  periods,  each  of  which  will  have  a  sub-aim  of  its 
own.) 
Sub-aims: 

1.  To  express  the  fact  of  ownership  by  an  individual.     (A  study  of  the 

child's  needs  makes  us  exclude  any  mention  of  such  exceptions  as 
Moses',  Jesus',  for  conscience'  sake,  etc.,  but  simply  to  develop 
the  invariable  rule:  Add  's.) 

2.  To  see  how  plurals  are  formed.     (Usually  by  adding  s  or  es,  but  also 

in  several  other  ways.) 

3.  To  give  plural  nouns  the  genitive  form.     (Done  by  adding  's,  or 

just  \) 

4.  To  learn  how  to  express  exactly  what  is  wished  said  in  correct  geni- 

tive form.  (Learned  by  careful  study  of  the  thought  first  expressed 
in  phrase  form.) 

5.  To  gain  mechanical  skill  in  using  the  facts  learned.       (Done  by  daily 

applications  in  other  lessons,  by  seat-work,  tests,  and  drills.) 

B.  Organization  of  Subject- Matter  to  Meet  this  Need  or  Aim: 

Our  ancestors  felt  this  need  and  satisfied  it  by  the  invention  of  the 
genitive  form,  which  is  characterized  by  the  use  of  the  apostrophe  with 
nouns,  and  by  inflected  case-forms  for  pronouns.  The  following  points 
illustrate  the  problem  and  its  solution: 

The  phrase,  John's  hat,  says  concisely  the  same  thing  as  John  owns  a 
hat,  or  John  has  a  hat.  So  long  as  the  race  confined  itself  to  oral  expres- 
sion, no  apostrophe  or  other  "sign  of  possession"  was  necessary,  but  as 
soon  as  thoughts  needed  to  be  put  into  writing,  confusion  must  naturally 
have  arisen.  For  example,  in  the  expression,  The  boys  play,  the  reader 
could  not  know  whether  the  error  was  a  failure  to  place  a  period  after 
play,  or  a  failure  to  finish  the  sentence — The  boys'  play  is  worth  watch- 
ing. The  form  may  have  developed  through  the  abbreviation  of  his  or 
has,  and  is,  consequently,  only  a  further  application  of  the  use  of  the 
apostrophe  in  contractions.  Illustrations:  The  girl'(ha)s  (a)  doll.  John 
Smith'(hi)s  book  (found  even  within  the  last  fifty  years). 

As  the  use  of  written  expression  became  more  general,  different  forms 
for  singular  and  plural  nouns  had  to  be  invented.  Then,  as  euphony 
entered,  exceptions  arose,  until  now  the  most  reliable  authorities  give 
the  following  principles: 

1.  All  singular  nouns  are  made  genitive  by  adding  an  apostrophe  and  5. 
a.  Euphony  has  excepted  from  this  rule  words  or  phrases  con- 
taining several  hissing  sounds,  namely,  Jesus,  Xerxes,  Moses, 
for  conscience'  sake,  for  goodness'  sake,  etc. 


246  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

b.  But  the  best  usage  does  not  sanction  this  change  for  only 
one  s  sound.     Write  James's  book,  the  countess's  ball,  etc. 

2.  Plural  nouns  must  be  separated  into  two  groups: 

a.  Those  which  end  in  j  and  add  only  the  apostrophe  to  become 

genitive. 

b.  Those  which  do  not  end  in  s  and  add  both  the  apostrophe  and  s. 

Proper  nouns  are  seldom  made  plural,  much  less  plural 
genitive,  and  when  they  are  so  used  the  phrase  form  is  the 
better  one  to  use.  Illustration:  "The  happiness  of  the  three 
Helens  is  now  complete,"  in  preference  to,  "The  three 
Helens'  happiness  is  complete." 

3.  When  there  is  any  doubt  whether  a  noun  should  be  used  as  singular  or 

as  plural  genitive,  transpose  the  expression  to  the  phrase  form,  thus: 
The  Hall  for  Students — should  be,  The  Students'  Hall. 
The  house  for  my  doll — should  be,  My  doll's  house. 
The  work  of  one  week — should  be,  A  week's  work. 
A  drill  of  ten  minutes — should  be,  A  ten  minutes'  drill. 
Cautions. — To  avoid  confusion,  emphasis  must  also  be  placed  upon  some 
points  which  are  only  slightly  related  to  these  three  principles. 

1.  Pronouns  have  their  own  genitive-case  forms  and  need  no  apostrophe. 

Its  (not  it's)  home  is  in  the  mountain.     One  must  here  note  that 
it's,  the  contraction,  is  to  be  studied  under  another  topic. 

2.  Simple  plurals  of  nouns  never  have  the  apostrophe.     The  girl  wears 

twos  (not  two's).     I  have  used  four  ands  (not  and's).     I  went  to 
visit  the  Smiths  (not  Smith's). 

3.  Letters,  marks,  and  figures,  however,  form  their  simple  plurals  by 

adding  's.     One  writes  6  a's;  four  +'s;  five  9's,  etc.,  but  not  five 
nine's.     (See  preceding  paragraph.) 
C.  Material  (other  than  subject-matter)  to  be  used  in  the  series  of  recitations 
necessary  to  teach  this  lesson: 

1.  Forms  of  applications  and  assignments  from  which  to  choose: 

a.  Children  are  given  lists  of  words  to  be  changed  to  genitive 

form  and  to  be  followed  by  names  of  articles  which  might 
be  owned: 

1.  Of  only  singular  nouns.     2.  Of  plurals  not  ending  in  s. 

3.  Of  plurals  ending  in  5.  4.  Of  all  three  classes  given 
miscellaneously. 

b.  Complete  sentences  called  for,  these  sentences  to  use  given 

words  in  genitive  form. 

c.  Children  asked  to  supply  blanks  in  the  following  sentences, 

which  have  been  selected  because  thought  is  necessary  to  see 
whether  singular  or  plural  genitives  are  to  be  supplied: 

1.  The  New  Foundland  dog...  body  is  large. 

2.  The  girl...  mothers  were  not  at  home. 

3.  The  child...  love  for  their  teacher  was  plain. 

4.  The  dress....  color  was  a  lovely  blue. 

5.  The  boy....  cap  was  torn. 

6.  Both  the  shoe...  buttons  were  gone. 

7.  The  class...  behavior  was  perfect. 

8.  The  goose....  feathers  are  soft. 

9.  The  worn....  husbands  went  to  war. 


Helps  on  English. — Language  and  Composition.       247 

10.  The  "Minute  M..„"  love  of  country  made  them  brave 

fighters. 

11.  My  kni ...  blades  were  all  broken. 

12.  The  doll ...  hair  came  off. 

13.  The  grass...  green. 
Can  now  be  seen. 

14.  Many  turkey...  wings  were  used  in  brushing  Pilgrim- 

hearths. 

15.  The  book....  tenth  page  is  torn. 
10.  The  bus  ...  driver  was  hurt. 

17.  For  pity...  sake,  help  me  in  this  affair! 

18.  The  magnet. ..  power  of  attraction  makes  it  useful  to 

man. 

19.  Lamb....  wool  is  used  for  many  things. 

20.  The  pupil ...  last  holiday  was  April  2. 

d.  After  repeated  drills,  put  with  the  genitive  forms  some  simple 

plurals  to  be  supplied,  because,  after  learning  the  genitive 
form,  children  are  inclined  to  use  the  apostrophe  for  mere 
plurals  where  no  thought  of  ownership  enters,  e.  g.: 

1.  The  boy....  like  Washington. 

2.  February  14  is  St.  Valentine....  day. 

3.  Boy  ...  like  that  day. 

4.  I  saw  one  child...  valentine. 

5.  The  heart...  on  it  were  red. 

6.  Six  boy....  came  to  school. 

7.  One  boy....  hat  was  torn. 

8.  Another  boy.—  book  was  soiled. 

9.  The  other  boy....  felt  sorry. 

10.  No  child.. ..  were  absent  Monday. 

11.  The  teacher....  desk  is  oak. 

12.  The  flower....  on  her  desk  look  fresh. 

13.  Their  petal—  are  pink. 

14.  The  flower....  fragrance  is  delightful. 

e.  Sentences  selected  from  history  stories  so  that  immediate   ap- 

plication to  other  lessons  may  be  made.  These  may  be 
given  in  incorrect  form  to  be  made  right: 

1.  Pharaoh  commanded  all  the  Israelites  children  to  be 

killed. 

2.  Miriam  was  Aarons  sister. 

3.  Pharaohs  daughter  found  Moses  on  the    rivers    bank. 

4.  Moses  obeyed  Gods  commandments. 

5.  He  met  Jethros  daughters  at  a  well. 

0.  The  Israelites  obtained  Pharaohs  permission. 
7.  The  Red  Seas  waters  were  parted  for  them    to    pass 
through. 

f.  Children  may  each  find  five  examples  of  the  use  of  the  apos- 

trophe in  any  of  their  text-books.  Copy  the  five  sentences 
and  be  ready  tomorrow  to  read  them  and  tell  why  the  apos- 
trophe is  placed  as  it  is  in  each  case. 

g.  Dictation  of  a  story  employing  as  many  genitives  as  possible, 
h.  Applications  can  be  made  in  every  succeeding  lesson  by  call- 
ing for  the  reason  (or  rule)  whenever  a  genitive  is  noted. 


boy 

turkey 

man 

sheep 

child 

Charles 

rose 

table 

shoe 

book 

dog 

foot 

n  satisfying 

this.) 

The  teacher 

cork 

Helen 

eye 

girl 

string 

ox 

church 

class 

glass 

deer 

moss 

bus 

goose 

James 

pencil 

mouse 

knife 

lady 

248  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

2.  Materials  and  objects  to  have  in  class:  Such  as  are  needed  to  make 

meaning  clear,  c.  g.,  a  piece  of  lambskin  with  wool  on  it,  and  a 

slipper-sole  with  lambs'-wool  lining. 

II. — Method. — (Divided  into  recitation  units,  but  not  of  necessity  to  be  given 

on  consecutive  days.     In  fact,  a  fortnight  between  some  would  produce 

better  results.) 

First  Recitation:  The  use  of  the  apostrophe  with  singular  nouns. 

A.  Preparation. — (To  arouse  the  child's  feeling  of  need,  and  to  find  what  pos- 

sible past  knowledge  he  has  to  aid  him 
has  on  the  board  these  or  similar  words: 

gas 

dress 

Willie 

woman 

wolf 

picture 

The  children  are  asked  to  study  the  words  for  a  few  minutes  to  be  sure  all  are 
known.     Then  the  teacher  questions  after  this  fashion: 

1.  How  many  does  this  signify?    This  one?   (Pointing.)     Look  through 

the  list  and  see  how  many  each  word  signifies. 

2.  Do  you  know  the  meaning  of  ownership,  or  possession?     Who  can 

suggest  something  that  a  boy  may  own?  That  a  shoe  may  have? 
That  a  table  may  possess?  (Derive  such  sentences  as  "The  boy 
has  a  knife,"  "The  shoe  has  a  tongue,"  "The  table  has  a  leg." 

3.  These  same  things  can  be  told  in  fewer  words.     Can  any  one  think 

of  a  short  way  to  tell  me  that  the  table  has  a  leg?  (The  table's 
leg.)     Give  several  others. 

4.  Have  any  of  you  ever  seen  such  a  phrase  written?     Can  you  write 

it?  (If  a  child  can,  continue.)  What  is  that  little  mark  which 
you  have  made  called?     Where  did  you  place  it? 

B.  Development: 

1.  If  the  children's  previous  knowledge  has  made  clear  the  proper  plac- 

ing of  the  apostrophe,  the  teacher  needs  only  to  drill  and  to  give 
opportunity  to  all  pupils  to  show  their  grasp  of  the  fact.  If  it  can 
not  be  derived  from  the  past  experience  of  the  class,  the  teacher 
must  give  the  form  herself,  since  no  amount  of  thinking  could  pro- 
duce the  correct  solution  to  this  problem. 

2.  When  the  correct  form  has  been  presented,  in  one  way  or  another, 

the  teacher  continues:  Some  one  may  tell  me  (write)  in  the  short- 
est way  possible  that  the  boy  has  a  cap,  the  dog  has  a  bone,  etc. 
Tell  me  anything  you  wish  that  the  turkey  has,  the  ox,  etc.  Take 
any  object  or  person  named  in  our  list,  think  of  something  which 
that  object  or  person  may  have,  and  tell  us  in  the  shortest  possible 
way.     Do  this  several  times. 

3.  What  have  you  done  in  every  case?  (Added  '.?.)     Why  did  you  do 

it?  (To  show  ownership.)  Why  was  something  of  the  sort  neces- 
sary? (To  prevent  confusion  with  simple  plurals.)  How  do  you 
think  the  apostrophe  came  to  be  chosen?  (In  contractions.)  Illus- 
trate. Do  you  think  this  form  (table's)  is  any  sort  of  contraction? 
(See  Organization  of  Subject-Mattcr,  p.  245.) 


Helps  on  English. — Language  and  Composition.        249 

4.  Now  let  us  see  what  we  have  learned  today.  What  sort  of  words 
have  we  had?  (Nouns  meaning  only  one.)  Have  we  treated  all 
exactly  alike?  Then  how  shall  we  explain  what  we  have  learned 
to  do?  (Some  expression  of  the  rule  or  principle  derived,  but  the 
expression  must  not  be  forced  into  any  stereotyped  form  until  the 
impression  (or  feeling)  is  sufficiently  strong  to  demand  it,  even  if 
left  for  a  week. 
C.  Application. — (See  full  list,  one  of  which  will  be  chosen,  c.  g.,  use  (1)  sin- 
gular nouns,  under  a,  under  1.) 

Second  Recitation:  The  Study  of  Plurals. 
(We  cannot  here  take  time  to  teach  all  the  rules  for  forming  plurals  of  nouns, 
but  will,  instead,  take  simple  nouns,  the  plurals  of  which  are  already  known  by 
the  children.  These  plurals  we  shall  classify  into  very  general  classes.  Proba- 
bly, too,  the  terms  "singular"  and  "plural"  will  need  to  be  taught  as  the  briefest 
means  of  expressing  the  thought  of  "one,"  and  of  "more  than  one.") 

A.  Preparation: 

1.  The  list  of  words  used  yesterday  to  be  on  the  blackboard. 

2.  Review  yesterday's  work.     What  did  we  do  to  these  words  yester- 

day? What  is  the  sign  of  ownership  or  possession?  Write  the 
word  "apostrophe";  make  the  sign.  Where  is  it  placed  in  the  geni- 
tive form  of  each  of  these?  Write  on  blackboard  the  new  term, 
"genitive,"  explaining  that  it  is  the  name  of  the  form  employed  to 
show  ownership,  and  other  things  to  be  learned  later.  Make  any 
two  words  genitive  and  put  them  into  sentences. 

3.  Prepare  for  advance.     Do  you  know  what  I  mean  by  such  expressions 

as  these?  (Teacher  writes  on  blackboard) :  He  is  a  very  singular 
man.  That  was  the  most  singular  story  I  ever  heard.  You  are 
a  singular  boy.  (The  children  ought  to  feel  that  singular  means 
"one  of  a  kind,"  so  that  when  we  call  these  words  singular  nouns, 
the  same  thought  of  "oneness"  is  appreciated.)  Name  some  more 
singular  nouns. 

4.  Do  you  know  what  we  call  nouns  that  mean  more  than  one?     (If  no 

one  does,  the  teacher  teaches  the  name,  "plurals.") 

B.  Development: 

1.  Let  us  make  all  the  words  in  our  list  plural.      (Children  do  this. 

During  the  process  they  will  find  that  "proper  nouns"  are  seldom 
made  plural,  and  why  this  is  true.) 

2.  How  many  classes  do  we  find?     Three,  namely:  a.  Proper  nouns 

seldom  made  plural,     b.  Plurals  ending  in  5.     c.  Plurals  not  end- 
ing in  s. 
Let  us  mark  the  three  classes  with  three  different  colors  of  crayon.     John 
may  mark  all  the  proper  nouns;  Mary  those  ending  in  s;  and  James  those  not 
ending  in  5.     Lulu  may  copy  the  first  list  in  order  on  this  board;  Jane  may  copy 
the  second  list,  and  George  the  third. 

3.  Now  let  us  see  what  we  have  learned  today  (a.  Nouns  which  mean 

but  one  are  called  singular  nouns,  b.  Those  which  mean  more 
than  one  are  called  plural  nouns,  c.  Proper  nouns  are  seldom  made 
plural,  d.  There  are  two  main  classes  of  plural  nouns — those 
which  end  in  s,  and  those  which  do  not  end  in  s.) 

C.  Application:  Tomorrow  we  shall  learn  how  to  make  these  plural  nouns 

genitive  in  form.     For  study,  I  shall  ask  you  to  fill  blanks  in  some  sen- 


250  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

tences.  Sometimes  you  will  need  to  use  the  singular  genitive  and  some- 
times the  simple  plural.  Try  to  get  all  correct.  (The  assignment  will  be 
a  combination  of  b  and  c  under  full  list  of  applications.) 

Third  Recitation:  The  formation  of  Plural  Genitives. 

A.  Preparation: 

1.  Review  of  work  of  preceding  days:  What  are  nouns?     What  are 

singular  nouns?  What  are  plural  nouns?  How  do  we  make  sin- 
gular nouns  show  ownership;  that  is,  assume  the  genitive  form? 

2.  Arouse  the  need  for  the  plural  genitive:  Do  we  own  things  in  com- 

mon? Illustrate.  (Several  children  have  one  teacher;  one  mother, 
one  father;  one  house,  etc.  Several  boys  own  a  football.  Two 
merchants  own  a  store,  etc.) 

B.  Development: 

1.  Let  us  learn  today  how  to  express,  "The  boys  have  a  ball,"  or  "The 

children  have  a  new  teacher,"  in  the  briefest  way  possible.  Do 
any  of  you  know?  Let  us  begin  by  looking  at  the  groups  we  studied 
yesterday.  How  many  groups  have  we?  Let  us  talk  about  the 
proper  nouns  first.  Why  seldom  made  plural?  If  made  plural, 
would  several  Johns  or  Helens  probably  own  anything  in  common? 
Then  let  us  discard  this  group  and  look  at  the  others. 

2.  Lead  children  to  suggest  articles  which  several  men,  women,  or  chil- 

dren, could  own  in  common.  Form  given.  Rule  made.  (See  Organ- 
ization of  Subject-Matter,  p.  246.)    Rule  applied  to  several  phrases. 

3.  Group  three,  plurals  ending  in  s,  studied. 

a.  Bring  out  the  need  of  a  plural  genitive  as  distinctive  from  a 

singular  genitive.  Contrast  One  boy's  cap,  and  Two  boys' 
caps. 

b.  Show  how  the  addition  of  the  's  here  would  make  too  many  s 

sounds;  and  that  to  place  the  apostrophe  alone  before  the  s 
in  the  plural  word  would  make  it  exactly  like  the  singular. 
If  no  child  knows  what  is  done,  tell  how  grammarians  have 
decided  in  favor  of  the  apostrophe  alone  (to  prevent  an  un- 
due number  of  s  sounds)  placed  after  the  5  which  ends  the 
plural,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  singular  form. 

c.  Drill  upon  the  fact  by  many  illustrations. 

d.  Contrast  the  two  methods  of  securing  plural  genitive  form. 

What  distinguishes  the  plural  from  the  singular  form  in 
plurals  not  ending  in  s?     In  plurals  ending  in  s? 

e.  Formulate  a  rule  for  writing  plural  genitives.     (First  make  the 

noun  plural;  decide  about  the  ending;  if  it  ends  in  s,  add  an 
apostrophe;  if  it  does  not  end  in  s,  add  '.v.) 

C.  Application. — Give  phrases  and  sentences  containing  both  sorts  of  plural 

genitives  to  be  written  correctly. 

Fourth  Recitation:  Distinctions  in  Genitives. 

A.  Preparation: 

1.  Very  carefully  review  preceding  work. 

2.  Help  pupils  to  see  the  need  of  expressing  correctly  one's  exact  thoughts. 

B.  Development: 

1.  If  children  show  their  understanding  of  preceding  work,  the  discus- 
sion of  some  errors  will  lead  them  to  see  for  themselves  that  the 
phrase  form  will  give  the  key.     Select  sentences  containing  such 


Helps  on  English. — Language  and  Composition.        251 

errors  as  these:  The  boy's  choir  will  meet  tomorrow;  the  dog's 
tails  wagged  joyously;  the  pens'  point  is  blunt;  the  boys'  knife  is 
broken;  the  girls'  hat  is  pretty;  the  girl's  mothers  went  away. 

2.  Test  this  by  transposing  a  number  of  phrases  to  genitive  form.     Ex- 

amples: A  home  for  teachers;  a  dress  for  my  doll;  the  mother  of 
the  girls;  the  husbands  of  the  women;  a  house  for  rabbits;  a  cage 
for  my  bird;  the  teacher  of  the  boys;  the  land  of  the  Indians. 

3.  Test  by  letting  pupils  explain  the  thought  of  a  number  of  correctly 

written  genitives,  such  as:  This  lambs'  wool;  the  grape's  seeds;  the 
tablets'  pages;  a  week's  work;  ten  minutes'  study;  contrasted  with: 
this  lamb's  wool;  the  grapes'  seeds;  the  tablet's  pages;  an  hour's 
drill.     (Have  actual  articles  in  class.) 

4.  Summarize  all  we  have  learned  in   the   four  lessons  (four  months, 

perhaps,  in  time.) 
C.  Application. — Seat-work  upon  sentences  from  history.  (See  Applic,  e,  p.  247.) 

Fifth  Recitation:  Drill  on  Genitives. 

A.  Preparation,  and  B,  Development,  made  in  preceding  plans. 
C.  Application. — Devote  the  entire  period  to  drills,  tests,  etc.,  such  as  are 
suggested  under  Applications,  a  to  h,  p.  246.     This   drill  will  probably 
disclose  some  misconceptions  such  as  are  given  under  "Cautions,"  p.  246, 
in  the  Subject-Matter  Division,  and,  as  the  need  arises,  some  or  all  of 
these  will  be  explained. 
Note. — This  subject  should  not  end  here,  but  should  be  reviewed  upon  every 
pertinent  occasion  during  the  months  and  years  which  follow. 

2.— A  FEW  VOCABULARY  LESSONS. 

1. — A  Fifth-Grade  Lesson  On  Actions.* 

Purpose. — To  arouse  the  child  to  the  need  of  accuracy  in  reporting  actions, 
and  thus  to  sharpen  his  discrimination  as  to  the  exact  meanings  of  words. 

Preparation. — (1)  A  pantomime  was  worked  out  by  the  class  from  their 
knowledge  of  certain  selected  persons  who  were  to  be  imitated.  (2)  The  panto- 
mime was  performed,  and  described  in  writing  by  each  child.  (3)  Each  report 
was  tested  by  action.  (4)  This  composite  report  was  put  upon  the  board  and 
tested,  bit  by  bit:  Miss  Pratt  sat  at  her  desk,  with  her  forhead  propped  in  her 
hands,  studying  diligently.  After  a  while  Superintendent  Charters  entered,  with 
his  head  bowed  in  thought,  one  hand  thrust  into  his  pocket  and  the  other  pulling 
at  his  lower  lip.  He  came  up  to  the  desk  with  long,  slow  strides.  "How  is  your 
school  getting  on?"  he  asked.  Miss  Pratt  started  with  surprise.  "Oh,  pretty 
well,"  she  answered. 

Check. — It  was  found  that  the  persons  described  could  perform  the  actions 
without  error  from  the  written  account,  hence  no  revision  was  needed. 

2. — Fifth-Grade  Vocabulary  Work  On  Winter  Weather,  with  two 
themes  to  illustrate  the  result. 

a.  Words  describing  a  dark  day,  derived  from  the  class: 
rainy  windy  cloudy  gloomy  dull  miserable 

wet  dark  sloppy  misty  cold  bad 

damp  foggy  dreamy  wintry  slushy  winter 

cool  breezy 


*  Fifth-grade  work  done  by  Mrs.  Weaver  (formerly  Miss  Pratt). 


252 


Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 


b.  Words  to  be  used  in  describing  a  snowy  day,  volunteered  by  the  class: 


soft 

heavy 

silvery 

damp 

sticky 

icy 

sugar 

deep 

light 

dry 

hard 

frosty 

clear 

drifting 

freezing 

fluffy 

quivering 

frozen 

white 

dazzling 

banked 

cutting 

cold 

slippery 

fleecy 

fine 

shining 

floating 

crusty 

glittering 

flaky 

clean 

watery 

glistening 

crystal 

fluttering 

heaped 

flying 

wet 

sparkling 

c.  Words  derived  to 

show  how  the  snow  falls: 

gently 

thickly 

quietly 

heavily 

wonderfully 

lazily 

softly 

easily 

beautifully 

down 

fast 

rapidly 

swiftly 

slowly 

smoothly 

silently 

drowsily 

silently 

lightly 

quickly 

d.  First  composition:  This  week  the  snow  fell  nearly  every  day.  The  snow 
is  about  a  foot  deep.  Every  morning  I  get  up  very  early  and  shovel  paths  to 
the  barn,  and  to  our  pump  and  shovel  paths  outside  the  yard.  The  first  time  it 
snowed  the  wind  blew  and  heaped  the  snow  up  high  and  in  some  places  there 
was  no  snow  at  all.  Every  evening  after  school,  some  boys  and  I  go  in  the  deep 
snow  and  play. — Herman  K. 

e.  Second  illustration:  The  snow  is  coming  down  faster  than  yesterday  and 
besides  the  flakes  are  big  and  flaky.  They  are  pure  white  and  not  so  mealy  as 
the  other  snow  was  and  when  they  come  down  they  are  quiet.  As  the  flakes 
fall  on  the  ground  they  look  as  if  they  are  thankful  it  is  so  white  that  they  look 
like  a  white  bed  spread  for  the  earth  and  plants. — Clarence  L. 

3. — Seventh-Grade  Work  on  Wintry  Weather. 

This  helps  one  to  see  the  growth  to  be  secured  in  two  years.  The  vocabu- 
lary in  each  effort  is  the  result  of  some  class-work  upon  the  subject,  where  lists 
of  suitable  expressions  were  secured  by  contributions  from  all,  arid  also  from 
literature  taken  in  the  reading  and  other  lessons  and  carried  over  to  the  lan- 
guage; as,  aisles  of  steel-stemmed  trees,  arabesques,  fret-work,  diamond  drops,  from 
"Sir  Launfal";  and  costly  ermine,  from  "The  First  Snowfall."  Three  themes  are 
given  to  show  that  in  spite  of  class-work  on  vocabulary,  great  individuality  can 
be  secured  in  the  written  results: 

c.  The  trees  are  all  covered  this  morning  with  an  exquisite  feathery  down 
which  is  very  beautiful  to  the  spectator.  They  look  very  delicate  and  dainty 
from  the  tip  of  every  branch  and  twig  to  the  very  base  of  the  tree.  It  makes  a 
person  walking  under  them  think  of  fairy  land  with  aisles  of  steel-stemmed  trees. 
— Frank  D. 

b.  Today  the  trees,  bushes,  and  houses  are  covered  with  a  beautiful  and 
exquisitely  delicate  covering  of  fleecy  whiteness,  outlined  against  a  sky  of  azure 
blue.  The  sun  shining  through  the  fret-work  of  twigs  and  branches  touches 
them  making  them  sparkle  with  a  delicate  kind  of  beauty  and  making  an  ideal 
winter  day. — Flora  L. 

c.  When  I  looked  out  of  the  window  this  morning  I  was  wonderfully  impressed 
by  the  mystic  sight  of  the  world.  Not  only  was  the  ground  piled  high  with  the 
soft  white  snow,  but  the  trees  were  most  delicately  clothed  with  frail,  feathery 
frost,  making  a  beautiful,  fairy-like  scene. — Mary  Frances  T. 

*  All  seventh-grade  work  used  was  done  by  Miss  Carrie  F.  Saunders. 


Helps  on  English. — Language  and  Composition.        253 

3.— ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  DESCRIPTIVE  WRITING. 

1. — Seventh-Grade  Work,  Using  Pictures. 

(All  errors  are  left  as  they  were  made  by  the  pupils  in  both  descriptions  and 
narrations.) 

THE   WAVE. 

The  picture  is  not  a  very  large  one,  yet  a  very  great  expanse  of  water  is  shown. 

The  sea  looks  as  though  a  storm  was  coming,  for  great  waves  are  rolling 
toward  the  shore  and  in  the  foreground  the  surf  is  boiling  and  frothing.  The 
waves  are  crested  with  white-caps,  underneath  which  are  dark  hollows. 

Flocks  of  sea  gulls  are  flying  and  skimming  across  the  stormy  water.  Their 
forms  are  scarcely  seen  against  the  lowering  clouds.  The  sky  is  a  sober  gray 
making  a  very  dismal  scene. 

In  the  distance  a  ship  is  seen  fighting  its  way  through  the  angry  waves  and 
trying  in  vain  to  get  to  the  rock-bound  coast. — Flora  L. 

THE    WAVE. 

Although  the  picture  is  not  large,  there  is  an  immense  tract  of  rough  water 
shown  seemingly  never  ending. 

The  frothing  waves  dash  against  the  rock-bound  coast  without  pity,  some- 
times bursting  out  like  a  volcano.  Looking  farther  on,  one  can  see  the  white- 
crested  waves  dashing  rapidly  onward,  broken  up  here  and  there  by  dark  valleys 
and  hills. 

Off  in  the  distance  a  ship  can  be  seen,  beaten  on  all  sides  by  the  fierce  uplift- 
ing waves,  and  making  its  way  toward  land  through  the  stormy  waters. 

To  the  right  of  this  are  a  few  sea  gulls  soaring  through  the  somber  sky,  toward 
the  forlorn  ship,  for  food. 

The  lowering,  black  clouds  are  trying  their  best  in  making  the  waves  have 
their  white  caps  on. — Meta  D. 

THE    WAVE. 

The  most  conspicuous  thing  in  this  picture  is  the  stormy  sea,  with  its  undu- 
lating hills  and  valleys.  Off  in  the  distance  one  can  see  the  towering  waves 
come  rushing  madly  on  towards  the  shore,  where  they  lash  with  merciless  power 
against  the  rock-bound  coast. 

One  lonely  ship  can  be  seen  clear  off  on  the  dim  horizon  with  a  flock  of  sea 
gulls  soaring  over  the  water  near  by  which  shows  that  land  is  not  far  off. 

Above  the  storm  tossed  waves,  the  sky  is  full  of  dark  threatening  clouds. — 
Frances  S. 

THE.  OCEAN. 

Although  the  picture  is  not  a  large  one  it  shows  a  very  large  area  of  stormy 
sea.  As  the  big  dark  waves  come  rushing  in  from  the  distance  they  seem  to  get 
larger  till  at  last  one  big  wave  stretches  across  the  entire  picture,  then  the  water 
moves  onward  till  it  reaches  the  shore  and  dashes  on  the  rock-bound  coast. 

In  the  distance  you  can  see  a  ship  tossed  about  by  the  angry  waters  and  the 
dark  gray  clouds  seem  to  touch  the  very  masts  of  it. 

Farther  to  the  right  is  a  large  flock  of  sea  gulls  sailing  along  the  water  after 
the  ship. — George  B. 

THE   OCEAN. 

Although  the  picture  is  small  it  shows  a  vast  expanse  of  water.  In  the  fore- 
ground the  low  foaming  waters  dash  madly  against  the  unseen  coast,  a  few  huge 
rocks  stand  out  from  the  shore  around  which  the  waves  whirl  angrily. 


254  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

Farther  back  is  a  mighty  towering  white-capped  wave  stretching  from  one 
side  of  the  picture  to  the  other.  Back  of  the  wave  as  far  as  the  eye  can  see  is  a 
vast  stretch  of  storm-tossed  water. 

Dreary  gray  clouds  overhang  the  ocean.  Far  out  to  the  left  of  the  picture 
is  a  small  sailing  vessel  barely  visible  behind  the  large  waves. 

A  number  of  large  sea  gulls  are  soaring  above  the  water  to  the  right. — James  T. 

2. — Eighth-Grade  Work,  Using  Pictures.* 

the  departure  of  the  pilgrims  from  holland. 
Walking  down  the  shore  at  Delft  Haven,  Holland,  in  the  year  1620,  I  saw 
about  fifteen  people  gathered  on  the  shore  and  some  were  in  a  small  boat.  Get- 
ting nearer  I  could  see  that  most  of  them  were  on  their  knees.  One  of  the  fore- 
most men  looked  to  be  a  young  priest.  He  was  looking  up  toward  heaven  with 
his  arms  outstretched.  Some  of  the  others'  heads  were  bent  in  prayer  and  some 
were  watching  those  in  the  boat.  On  the  whole  the  people  looked  very  wistful 
and  sad.  There  was  sorrow  on  the  faces  of  the  men  and  women  in  the  boat 
who,  I  believe,  hated  to  leave.  This  was  quite  a  contrast  to  the  young  children 
and  the  unruly  dog  who  were  full  of  excitement.  Two  strong  men  standing  by 
the  boat  gave  it  a  push  and  sent  it  into  the  deep  water.  There  was  then  a  wav- 
ing of  hands  as  the  boat  departed.  I  afterward  found  out  that  they  were  the 
Pilgrims  leaving  for  the  New  World. — Milton  P. 

WASHINGTON  AT  VALLEY  FORGE. 

One  evening  at  Valley  Forge  I  was  walking  through  the  woods  wondering 
what  would  become  of  our  army.  Suddenly  upon  glancing  up  I  beheld  Wash- 
ington, in  six  inches  of  snow,  on  his  knees  in  prayer,  not  two  rods  off.  I  shall 
never  forget  the  sincerity  of  this  great  man  nor  the  appealing  look  on  his  care- 
worn but  resolute  face  as  the  accents  of  his  petition  sounded  forth  under  those 
bare,  uninviting,  snow-laden  trees. — Jay  R. 

THE  DEATH  OF  GENERAL  WOLFE. 

General  Wolfe  is  dying  on  the  edge  of  a  battle  field.  Lying  in  the  center  of 
a  group  of  men  and  resting  on  one  arm,  with  his  hat  on  the  ground  before  him, 
he  lifts  his  eyes  to  heaven.  The  calmness  on  his  face  contrasts  greatly  with  the 
intense  grief  of  his  comrades.  Three  of  the  men  kneel  beside  him  with  sad  anxious 
faces  and  hold  their  dying  leader  up.  Two  men  stand  behind  Wolfe  bending 
over  so  they  can  see  his  face.  One  of  these  men  is  holding  the  flag  Wolfe  loves 
so  much.  The  two  soldiers  that  have  just  rushed  up  are  the  ones  that  have  the 
news  of  the  victory.  The  other  men  stand  wringing  their  hands  and  sorrowing 
over  their  leader's  death.  Even  the  Indian  sitting  there  on  the  ground  seems 
touched  by  the  sad  spectacle  before  him. — Marion  R. 

3. — Eighth-Grade  Work,  Using  a  Quotation  for  a  Foundation. 

on  the  farm. 

"The  gate  of  the  barn-yard  creaked  beneath  the  merry  weight  of  sun-brown 
children,  listening  while  they  swung." — Whitticr.  The  great  golden  sun  is  setting 
behind  the  soft,  green  hills.  Three  roguish,  laughing  children  are  swinging  on 
the  gate  of  the  barn-yard.  Their  hair,  brushed  so  neatly  in  the  morning,  is  all 
tumbled  now  and  falls  over  the  grimy  little  faces.  The  red  lips  are  made  redder 
by  the  strawberry  stains  upon  them,  and  their  legs,  faces  and  arms  are  brown 
as  an  Indian's.     The  cows  they  are  watching  are  straggling  up  the  barn-yard 

*  Eighth-grade  work  done  by  Miss  Agnes  Storie. 


Helps  on  English. — Language  and  Composition.       255 

and  every  now  and  then  they  can  hear  the  faint  tinkle  of  the  bell  upon  the  leader's 
neck. — Marion  R.  * 

THE    VIEW   FROM   THE    BARN-YARD    GATE. 

"The  gate  of  the  barn-yard  creaked  beneath  the  merry  weight  of  sun-brown 
children,  listening  while  they  swung." — Whitticr.  Back  and  forth  swung  an  old 
barn-yard  gate,  weighed  down  by  four  laughing  children,  who,  in  the  cool  of  the 
evening,  were  listening  to  the  katy-dids,  crickets  and  an  occasional  tinkle  of  a 
cow-bell,  and  looking  before  them  at  the  pretty  scene.  Broad  fields  of  grain 
swayed  gently  in  the  soft,  cool  breeze.  The  trees,  too,  huge  poplars,  slightly 
stirred  and  nodded.  Best  of  all  was  the  sun,  a  great  ball  of  fire,  gradually  sink- 
ing behind  the  hazy  horizon.  The  children  quietly  swinging  gazed  long  at  this 
scene  even  after  the  sun  had  gone  down,  leaving  many  colored  streaks  and  a 
faint  outline  of  a  sun  dog. — Alice  I. 

4. — Eighth-Grade  Work — An  impromptu  effort  to  establish  a  given  at- 
mosphere. 

A    GARDEN   DESOLATE. 

For  a  quarter  of  a  century  the  garden  had  lain  desolate.  Here  and  there 
among  a  forest  of  tangled  weeds  a  stray  primrose  or  a  sickly  looking  daisy  had 
fought  its  way  through  only  to  droop  and  lean  wearily  as  if  the  struggle  had  been 
so  prolonged  and  difficult  that  its  very  life  had  been  sapped  away.  Were  the 
weeds  not  so  matted  one  could  dimly  discern  traces  of  what  used  to  be  stately 
walks  bordering  formal  gradens. 

Over  in  one  corner  of  the  garden  stood  a  rustic  bench,  moss  covered  and  de- 
crepit, which  had  once  been  strong  and  artistic.  In  another  corner  stands  a 
trellis,  broken  and  sagging,  a  wilderness  of  white  roses  crowded  over  it  in  reckless 
confusion.  From  a  distance  they  looked  beautiful,  but  on  closer  observation  it 
is  discovered  tha-t  each  rose's  heart  has  an  evil  mildew  poisoning  it. 

In  the  center  of  this  wild  picture  is  a  fountain,  cracked  and  yawning,  with 
the  leaves  of  a  quarter  of  a  century  rotting  in  its  basin.  It  must  have  been  ex- 
ceedingly beautiful  in  the  days  of  its  youth,  for  under  the  blackened  surface, 
filled  with  dirt,  are  exquisite  carvings  of  winged  creatures,  flowers,  dragons  and 
beautiful  scrolls  worked  out  in  delicate  fineness.  The  garden  is  enclosed  by  a 
fence,  leaning  here  and  upright  there,  in  some  places  gaping,  giving  the  passer-by 
an  occasional  fleeting  glimpse  of  the  picture  of  utter  ruin  and  desolation  lying 
within. — Eunice  M. 

4.— WORK  LEADING  UP  TO  NARRATIVE  WRITING. 

(This  is  a  concise  report  of  work  actually  done  in  one  seventh  grade  by  Mrs. 
C.  B.  Chorpenning  and  Miss  Carrie  F.  Saunders.) 

A.  Nov.  15. — A  situation  presented:  On  the  Ice. 

1.  Six  boys — Damasius,  Earl,  Howard,  Henry,  Dean,  Edward. 
Four  girls — Florence,  Mildred,  Helen,  Ruth. 

2.  A  dilapidated  rail  fence  running  along  the  bank. 

3.  The  bank  so  low  as  to  be  easily  scaled. 

4.  A  tree  overhanging  the  bank. 

5.  Henry  falls  in. 

B.  Question:  What  did  each  of  the  others  do? 

Howard  ran  for  a  rope.  The  other  girls  and  Damasius  were  not  able 
Edward  ran  for  a  rail.  to  think  of  anything  to  do. 

Florence  ran  for  help.  Earl  came  up  from  a  distance. 
Dean  built  a  bonfire. 


256  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

C.  Class  asked  to  write  what  Howard  did. 

Problem — To  show  haste;  to  introduce  the  elements  of  rescue;  rope,  rail,  etc. 
Secured  the  following  expressions: 


like  a  shot 

rushed 

Howard,  remembering  the  rope 

like  an  arrow 

sped 

Howard,  seeing  the  rope 

like  the  wind 

instantly 

Howard,  noticing  the  rope 

like  a  flash 

immediately 

rope  which 

at  full  speed 

flew 

rope  that 

shot 

flashed 

D.  Nov.  16. — Class  asked  to  write  what  Edward  did. 

Problem — To  show  haste  and  that  it  was  done  at  the  same  time  as  Howard's 
effort.     Secured: 

lost  no  time  at  the  same  time  jerked 

redoubled  his  speed  while  seized 

with  all  possible  speed  just  as  quick  tug  of  war 

at  the  same  moment  tore 

E.  Nov.  17. — Class  asked  to  give  an  account  of  what  each  of  the  party  did  as 

Henry  fell  in,  showing  simultaneous  action. 

F.  Nov.  20. — Work  for  sentence  response.     Show  Henry  screaming  as  he  went 

into  the  water;  his  efforts  to  get  out.     Sentence  given:  With  a  terrified  yell 
as  he  sank  into  the  icy  water,  Henry  made  frantic  efforts  to  get  out. 
Make  efforts  to  get  out  the  strongest. 

G.  Nov.  22. — Make  condition  in  the  water  strongest.     Choking,  sputtering,  gur- 

gling.    Down,  down  he  sank. 
H.  Nov.  23. — Make  warmth  strongest.     Sentence  given:  Henry  was  warmed  by 

the  glowing  fire.     Analyzed  into  four  parts:  Henry,  fire,  brightness,  warmth. 
I.  Nov.  24. — Make  brightness  strongest. 
J.  Dec.  5-9. — Writing  entire  story,  revising  each  day;   trying  to  increase  the 

clearness  of  each   point,   especially  the  readiness   with  which  some  devised 

means  of  help. 
K.  Dec.   12. — School  divided  into  two  sections,  each  section  making  a  united 

effort  to  perfect  all  its  papers  in  regard  to  capitalization,  punctuation,  and 

paragraphing.     Members  of  each  section  might  consult  each  other  when 

in  doubt. 
L.  Dec.  13. — Same  with  regard  to  spelling.     Misspelled  words  on  papers  had 

been  written  correctly  on  board  by  teacher  before  the  lesson. 
M.  Final  papers  copied  on  white  paper.     One  is  given  below  as  an  illustration. 

A    SCARE. 

It  was  a  bright,  clear  winter  day  about  four  o'clock.     It  was  bitterly  cold. 

Helen,  Mildred,  Ruth,  Florence,  Edward,  Damasius  and  Dean  were  standing 
near  the  bank  of  a  stream  waiting  for  a  race  that  was  about  to  take  place.  How- 
ard and  Henry  were  preparing  to  race.  Earl,  standing  by  the  starting  place, 
gave  the  signal  to  start.  Away  they  went.  All  went  smoothly  for  a  while. 
Henry  began  to  gain.  He  glided  past  Howard.  Put  the  race  did  not  last  very 
long.  There  was  a  scream  and  a  splash.  Henry  had  fallen  in!  With  his  mouth 
open,  he  sank  under  the  icy  cold  water.  He  rose,  sputtering  and  choking,  grasp- 
ing wildly  for  something  to  take  hold  of. 

But  while  poor  Henry  was  fighting  with  death,  something  else  was  going  on. 
Howard  wheeled  around  and  flew,  with  three  times  the  speed  he  had  raced,  to  a 
rope  he  had  remembered  seeing  entangled  in  a  fence  near  by.  He  got  the  rope  and 
flew  back  passing  Damasius,  Mildred,  Helen  and  Ruth,  who  were  paralyzed  with 


Helps  on  English. — Language  and  Composition.       257 

fear  and  whizzing  past  Edward  who  was  tugging  at  a  rail  on  the  fence.  Florence 
started  to  the  nearest  house  for  help  and  Dean  had  a  bon-fire  built  in  less  time 
than  it  takes  words  to  tell  it.  Earl  hastened  to  the  scene  of  disaster  in  time  to 
take  the  rope  from  Howard,  who  was  nearly  exhausted,  and  threw  it  toward 
Henry,  who  grasped  it  as  tightly  as  his  numb  lingers  would  permit  him. 

This  happened  in  such  a  short  time  that  Florence  didn't  have  to  get  very 
far  and  was  called  back.  She  hastened  back  to  find  a  happy  party  surrounding 
the  cheerful  fire.  Henry  was  thoroly  warmed  and  dry  by  this  time.  After  the 
party  got  warm,  they  started  off  to  their  homes  none  the  worse  for  their  scare. 

Illustrations  of  Final  Stories  from  Other  Problems, 
home  from  a  nutting  party. 

It  was  in  the  fall  of  the  year  and  four  boys,  Phil,  John,  Jay  and  Charles, 
were  on  the  way  home  from  a  nutting  party,  on  which  Charles  had  fallen  out  of 
a  nut  tree  and  had  sprained  his  ankle,  but  the  other  boys  had  had  better  luck 
than  that,  they  each  had  a  bag  of  nuts. 

Their  faces  were  dusty  and  in  fact  they  were  dusty  from  head  to  foot.  The 
hot  sun  poured  down  upon  them  and  the  perspiration  was  rolling  off  of  them  in 
little  streams. 

While  the}'  were  walking  along  under  the  shade  of  a  few  friendly  maple  trees, 
that  hung  over  the  edge  of  the  bluff,  they  heard  in  the  distance  a  rumbling  noise 
that  sounded  like  an  avalanche,  but  they  knew  it  was  a  runaway  team. 

On  hearing  the  rapidly  approaching  hoof  beats  the  boys  became  frightened 
and  nervous  and  began  looking  for  a  place  of  safety.  Charles  finally  decided  to 
climb  the  steep  bluff.  So  with  a  frantic  struggle  and  a  deep  respiration  he  started 
the  duty  that  his  life  depended  upon.  He  kept  saying  to  himself  "it  can  be  done, 
it  can  be  done."  He  succeeded  in  his  attempt  and  finally  arrived  at  a  place  of 
security. 

In  the  mean  time  the  other  three  boys  were  looking  around  to  see  where  they 
could  go.  Phil  was  excited  and  his  breath  came  in  gasps,  and  his  teeth  were 
chattering.  The  predicament  he  was  in  was  enough  to  "freeze  your  young  blood." 
He  and  Jay  had  decided  to  leave  their  nuts  in  the  middle  of  the  road  because 
they  thought  it  would  stop  the  horses.  After  carefully  putting  their  bags  of 
nuts  in  the  road  they  started  down  the  cliff,  but  all  the  time  they  had  their 
minds  on  the  nearing  team. 

John  thinking  his  bag  of  nuts  would  bring  him  in  some  change  began  climb- 
ing the  bluff  after  Charles  with  them.  With  his  great  hindrance  he  succeeded 
in  his  task. 

The  boys  were  no  more  out  of  danger  than,  with  a  roar  and  a  crash,  the  horses 
dashed  by. — Nanna  B. 

THE  FIRE. 

Cold,  bleak,  biting  weather.  Level  stretches  of  glittering  snow,  broken  by 
trees  made  intensely  black  by  the  cold  moon  and  stars.  Houses  and  scarred 
bluffs  in  the  distance. 

In  one  of  these  houses  a  girl  was  asleep.  A  whistle  sounded  loud  and  clear. 
Maude  stirred.  Another  whistle.  She  rubbed  her  eyes  and  sat  up  looking  none 
too  good  natured.  Again  the  whistle!  She  got  out  of  bed  and  pattered  across 
the  floor  to  the  window  where  she  looked  out.  Nothing  in  sight.  Oh  yes!  A 
wreath  of  gray  smoke  whirled  out  of  a  window  of  the  large  brick  building  across 
the  street.  It  was  the  Normal  School!!  She  hastily  summoned  her  father  who 
had  not  been  awakened  by  the  alarm.     Then  she  dressed  with  frantic  haste. 


258  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

As  she  was  hurrying  on  her  coat  the  chief's  wagon  whirled  madly  down  Main 
Street,  clanging  its  bell  and  leaving  a  line  of  gaping  windows  and  whirling  snow 
in  its  wake.  It  had  scarcely  been  seen  before  the  hook  and  ladder  dashed  past. 
The  clang  clan-n-n-n-ng  on  the  startled  air  brought  fearful  thoughts  to  many 
minds.  Shrieking  and  banging  the  chemical  rushed  swiftly  onward  and  the  people 
were  thoroly  aroused  as  the  hose  cart  galloped  past.  Shouts  and  screams  min- 
gled with  the  sound  of  banging  doors  and  windows  were  heard  as  Maude  stumbled 
down  the  steps  and  across  the  street  clinging  tightly  to  her  father's  hand.  She 
had  no  sooner  come  to  the  curbing  when  she  saw  a  moving  figure  near  the  north 
corner  of  the  building.  It  was  Mr.  Maxwell!  She  had  hardly  comprehended 
who  it  was  when  she  was  stumbling  into  a  smothering  biting  mass  of  sharp  snow. 
She  gathered  herself  up,  laughing,  with  wrists  and  face  scratched  and  smarting. 
Her  father  caught  her  hand  and  she  found  herself  flying  over  the  fence.  On  she 
scrambled  thru  the  snow.  She  ran  to  the  corner  where  Mr.  Maxwell's  house  was 
and  seated  herself  on  the  fence. 

By  this  time  darting  tongues  of  flame  were  cutting  the  rolling  masses  of  swirl- 
ing smoke  and  throwing  a  ghastly  light  on  the  building  and  faces.  The  fire  was 
well  under  way  when  discovered  or  it  would  not  have  been  so  fierce  now.  When 
any  one  could  see  the  moon  the  fire  made  it  a  trembling  blot  of  silvery  light 
which  was  quickly  clouded  over  by  the  masses  of  night-like  smoke. 

In  a  quick  orderly  way  the  firemen  had  gone  about  their  respective  duties 
and  masterful  order  only  was  seen  among  the  rubber  mailed  bodies.  All  of  a 
sudden  a  low  rumbling  sound  was  heard  and  a  great  dash  of  water  came  with 
powerful  force  against  and  into  the  building.  Then  some  men  entered  and 
chopped  away  parts  of  the  woodwork  and  water  was  directed  toward  the  open- 
ing thus  made.  For  a  long  time  the  fire  rose  and  fell,  and  then  swelled  again, 
but  the  firemen  got  the  best  of  it. — Lelia  M. 

5.— AN  EIGHTH-GRADE  NEWSPAPER.* 

An  Experiment  in  English  Involving  Unity  of  Purpose  as  Against  Indi- 
vidual Effort. 

E.  Catherine  Burkholder, 
State  Normal  School,  Winona,  Minnesota. 

The  entire  composition  class  of  thirty-nine  eighth-grade  pupils  resolved  itself 
into  an  office  force  and  devoted  its  composition  time  for  two  weeks  to  newspaper 
work.  The  paper  was  to  be  finished  by  the  end  of  two  weeks  and  was  to  be 
read  by  members  of  the  "force"  before  an  assembly  of  all  the  grades.  The  time 
limit  furnished  an  incentive  for  writing  under  stress,  and  the  prospective  audience 
furnished  the  motive  for  creditable  work.  At  the  first  few  meetings  of  the  force 
preliminary  problems  were  considered.  The  most  important  of  these  were:  (1) 
Length  of  time  for  reading  the  paper;  (2)  size  and  form  of  paper;  (3)  audience;  (4) 
nature  of  material  to  go  into  paper;  (5)  plan  of  manipulation  of  work.  After 
discussion  we  decided  to  "get  out"  a  paper  that  could  be  read  to  an  audience  in 
twenty-five  minutes.  Children  from  the  first  grade  through  the  seventh,  with 
their  teachers,  supervisors,  and  principal,  made  up  the  audience.  This  presented 
a  problem  as  to  subject-matter.  We  decided  that  articles  must  be  written  which 
would  be  of  interest  to  little  children  and  yet  be  worthy  of  eighth-grade  efforts. 
This  led  to  consideration  of  the  nature  of  the  material:  Should  the  paper  contain 

*  Reprinted  here  by  courtesy  of  the  author  and  of  the  publishers  of  The  Elementary  School 
Teacher  for  May,  1914. 


Helps  on  English. — Language  and  Composition.        259 

town  news  or  school  news?     Should  it  be  of  local  or  of  general  interest?     After  a 

frank  discussion  some  one  suggested  that  we  consider  the  school  as  a  locality  or 

community,  and  that  the  children,  teachers,  and  all  connected  with  the  school, 

be  considered  the  citizens,  and  that  the  different  phases  of  school-work,  such  as 

manual  training,  gymnasium,  reading,  geography,  etc.,  constitute  the  enterprises 

of  the  community.     This  was  satisfactory  to  all,  for  now  we  could  get  out  a 

newspaper  concerned  entirely  with  school  affairs.     It  was  still  left  to  consider 

under  what  heads  our  articles  should  appear.     The  children  were  all  emphatic 

in  holding  entirely  to  the  newspaper  idea,  and  this  list  of  headings  was  decided 

upon: 

Personal  Mention  Poem  Cartoons 

Editorial  Market  Reports  Advertisements 

City  News  Weather  Report  Funny  Column 

Story  Sporting  News 

Before  the  force  could  get  down  to  writing,  there  were  still  considerations  to 
be  disposed  of.  The  paper  was  to  be  read  the  Friday  preceding  Thanksgiving, 
hence  it  was  decided  that  it  should  be  a  Thanksgiving-  number,  and  the  Presi- 
dent's proclamation  was  added  to  our  list.  It  was  suggested  that  the  story  ought 
to  be  a  Thanksgiving  one.  Cartoons  appropriate  and  advertisements  incident 
to  Thanksgiving  seemed  easy. 

We  decided  that  in  addition  to  our  other  topics  we  would  write  up  some 
phase  of  the  work  connected  with  each  room  in  the  elementary  school.  We 
planned  that  these  articles  should  make  up  an  important  part  of  the  material  of 
the  paper,  for,  as  one  girl  put  it,  "That  will  make  it  easy  to  interest  the  children, 
for  even  the  first-grade  children  will  like  to  hear  what  we  have  to  say  about  them." 

As  to  manipulation  of  the  work:  An  editor-in-chief  and  two  assistants  were 
elected.  The  three  boys  at  once  felt  the  responsibility  of  making  it  "go." 
Reporters  were  also  elected — two  for  each  room  in  the  elementary  school  and 
two  for  each  of  the  other  headings  in  our  list. 

The  editor-in-chief  and  his  assistants  thought  it  would  be  wise  that  everybody 
on  the  force  should  write  an  editorial  and  allow  the  editors  to  choose  the  best 
one.  This  plan  was  also  suggested  for  the  story.  One  meeting  was  taken  up 
with  a  discussion  on  "editorials."  At  its  close  the  children  knew  the  essentials 
of  a  good  one.  They  knew  where  it  was  to  be  found  in  the  paper  and  they  had 
decided  that  theirs  should  set  forth  the  sentiments  of  their  paper  in  regard  to 
Thanksgiving.  Some  of  the  editorials  were  quite  good,  but  the  editors  saw  how 
it  was  possible  to  work  up  a  fine  one  by  putting  together  selected  thoughts  from 
all.     This  is  the  editorial  as  it  went  into  the  paper: 

This  paper  believes  that  "the  best  Thanksgiving  is  Thanksliving."  We  ought  to  make  every 
day  in  the  year  a  Thanksgiving  day.  Most  people  seem  to  think  that  a  good  time,  a  holiday, 
and  a  big  dinner — with  emphasis  on  the  dinner — constitute  a  perfect  Thanksgiving.  But  we  would 
have  them  remember  the  old  saying  of  Shakespeare,  "Yet  for  aught  I  see  they  are  sick  that  surfeit 
with  too  much  as  they  that  starve  with  nothing." 

By  far  the  most  interesting  feature  of  all  the  work  was  that  in  connection 
with  the  reports  from  the  several  rooms.  The  reporters  asked  the  teachers  for 
interviews  and  arranged  for  a  visiting  time  when  they  might  observe  the  work 
going  on.  I  saw  in  advance  the  different  teachers  and  explained  fully  to  them 
what  we  were  doing.  I  asked  them  to  grant  the  visiting-time  to  the  reporters 
when  there  was  work  going  on  that  they  would  like  especially  well  to  have  re- 
ported. (Cooperation  here  meant  a  unifying  influence  so  far  as  the  school  as  a 
whole  was  concerned.) 

At  the  appointed  times  the  reporters  went  for  their  visits.  They  always 
came  back  scarcely  able  to  wait  until  they  could  find  time  to  write  up  what  they 


260  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

had  seen  and  heard.  The  two  reporters  from  each  room  worked  together  and 
came  to  me  with  their  articles  or  asked  permission  to  read  them  to  the  class. 
All  the  articles  that  went  into  the  paper  were  read  to  the  entire  class  for  sugges- 
tions, the  class  taking  on  the  attitude  of  an  audience  to  see  whether  or  no  the 
writing  was  clear  and  interesting.  Criticism  was  free  and  often  severe,  but  com- 
mon interest  in  the  paper  made  it  easy  to  give  and  easy  to  take.  The  reporters 
were  always  eager  to  go  to  work  at  revising  or  rewriting.  In  several  instances 
the  articles  were  worked  over  the  fourth  and  fifth  time — the  children  never 
showing  any  signs  of  weariness.     Here  are  two  articles  typical  of  room  reports: 

MISS  STAPLES'S  ROOM   (FIRST  GRADE). 

Last  week  on  Thursday  afternoon  Miss  Staples's  room  was  visited  by  two  reporters  of  this 
paper.  It  is  a  light,  cheery  room  with  large  east  windows.  It  is  also  made  pleasant  with  its 
cream-colored  walls,  brown  woodwork,  plants,  palms,  and  goldfish. 

At  half-past  one  the  attention  of  the  school  was  called  by  the  words,  "Lips  still."  Then  the 
children  were  requested  to  raise  their  hands  so  Miss  Staples  might  see  if  they  were  clean.  The  B 
reading -class  got  their  chairs  and  placed  them  very  carefully  and  quietly  in  a  semicircle  in  the  front 
of  the  room,  while  the  C  class  passed  to  the  board  to  draw  houses  and  trees  that  they  could  see 
out  of  the  window.  The  children  were  very  much  interested  in  their  reading,  and  they  dramatized 
it  very  well  by  putting  a  great  deal  of  feeling  into  it.  The  general  attitude  of  the  room  was  very 
good.        • 

The  desks  are  placed  in  a  sort  of  semicircle  so  that  the  children  can  watch  each  other  while 
they  recite.  The  tennis  shoes  are  fastened  on  the  rod  under  the  desk.  On  the  right  side  of  each 
desk  is  a  black  pocket.  The  contents  of  this  pocket  are:  A  box  of  paints,  a  paint-dish,  a  paint- 
cloth,  a  box  of  crayons,  a  pair  of  scissors,  a  button-hook,  and  a  finger-nail  cleaner.  On  the  other 
side  of  the  desk  is  another  pocket  containing  a  drinking-cup  wrapped  in  a  napkin  to  keep  it  clean. 

As  a  part  of  the  children's  work,  they  make  up  dreams.  They  fold  their  arms  and  dream. 
Those  who  have  dreams  pass  to  the  front  of  the  room  to  tell  them.  This  is  good  practice  for  them 
to  learn  to  speak  before  an  audience.  One  little  boy  dreamed  this:  "I  dreamed  it  was  the  Fourth 
of  July  and  I  was  a  fire-cracker.  Pretty  soon  I  turned  into  a  torpedo.  I  had  a  face  and  arms 
and  legs.     I  was  walking  along  the  street  and  I  tripped  and  fell  on  my  side  and  exploded." 

STORIES  BY  MISS  MARVIN'S  PUPILS   (FOURTH  GRADE). 

The  pupils  of  Miss  Marvin's  room  were  writing  stories  of  dogs  on  Thursday  morning  of  last 
week.  All  the  stories  are  to  be  typewritten  by  the  pupils  themselves,  bound  in  a  book,  and  then 
sent  to  the  children  at  the  hospital. 

These  stories  were  illustrated  in  three  different  ways:  with  kodak  pictures,  freehand  drawings, 
and  with  tracings.     Copies  are  to  be  kept  also  and  sent  to  the  Tri-County  Fair  next  fall. 

These  are  some  of  the  best  subjects:  "My  Old  Cat  on  Sunday  Morning,"  "A  Story  of  Prince," 
"My  Cat  Tempest,"  "A  True  Story  of  Rover,"  "The  Result  of  His  Visit,"  "A  True  Story  of 
Rags."     They  were  all  very  good. 

As  time  drew  near  for  the  paper  to  be  finished,  during  office  hours  (compo- 
sition and  penmanship  time)  nearly  all  phases  of  the  work  in  all  stages  of  devel- 
opment could  be  seen  going  on.  Interviews,  writing,  revising,  cartoon-making, 
conferences  with  the  editors,  etc.,  were  in  progress.  The  children  were  at  work 
singly  and  in  groups  in  the  main  office  (our  schoolroom),  at  the  tables  in  the 
text-book  library,  and  at  the  long  table  in  the  principal's  office. 

We  called  the  paper  the  Elementary  School  Weekly.  It  was  hand-printed  on 
a  double  sheet  of  four  pages.  Each  page  was  15x13  inches  in  size  and  was  divided 
into  four  columns — the  customary  margins  being  allowed.  The  cartoons  were 
reproduced  on  large  sheets  of  tagboard  and  placed  where  they  could  be  seen 
easily  by  the  audience.  Members  of  the  force  read  to  the  audience  the  different 
articles  in  the  paper,  including  the  "funny  column"  and  advertisements.  Proof 
of  its  success  was  the  fact  that  it  held  the  entire  attention  of  all  the  audience 
during  the  reading. 

As  to  results:  Aside  from  the  benefits  in  English  resulting  from  opportunity 
offered  for  spontaneity  and  freedom  of  expression,  the  children  had  had  experi- 


Arithmetic  Aids. 


261 


ence  in  doing  team-work — they  had  worked  together  for  a  common  end  and  knew 
they  had  done  something  worth  while.  This  gave  them  confidence  and  assurance, 
which  showed  in  greater  strength  of  attack  upon  other  school  affairs  involving 
sustained  effort,  cooperation,  and  power  of  initiative. 

E.— ONE   HUNDRED    SPELLING    DEMONS   OF   THE    EN- 
GLISH LANGUAGE.* 

(Order  not  significant  after  first  four.) 


which 

hear 

seems 

says 

though 

whole 

their 

here 

Tuesday 

having 

coming 

won't 

there 

write 

wear 

just 

early 

cough 

separate 

writing 

answer 

doctor 

instead 

piece 

don't 

heard 

two 

whether 

easy 

raise 

meant 

does 

too 

believe 

through 

ache 

business 

once 

ready 

knew 

every 

read 

many 

would 

forty 

laid 

they 

said 

friend 

can't 

hour 

tear 

half 

hoarse 

some 

sure 

trouble 

choose 

break 

shoes 

been 

loose 

among 

tired 

buy 

tonight 

since 

lose 

busy 

grammar 

again 

wrote 

used 

Wednesday 

built 

minute 

very 

enough 

always 

country 

color 

any 

none 

truly 

where 

February 

making 

much 

week 

sugar 

women 

know 

dear 

beginning 

often 

straight 

done 

could 

guess 

blue 

V.— ARITHMETIC  AIDS. 


A.— OUTLINE  OF  SOCIAL  SITUATIONS  WITHIN  WHICH 
VARIOUS  ARITHMETICAL  PROCESSES  DEVELOPED. 

Note:  The  succeding  outline  is  an  attempt  to  show  more  clearly  how  each  commonly  taught 
topic  of  arithmetic  develops  in  the  child's  evolution  as  it  did  in  the  evolution  of  the  race,  and, 
consequently,   how  each  topic  can   be  motivated  and  given  its  rightful  evaluation. 

I.  Barter — Exchange  of  wholes,  without  forethought  or  imagination.     Different 

articles  evaluated  by  immediate  needs  or  by  the  feelings,  as  primitive 
peoples  exchange  furs  for  bright  beads,  or  as  boys  exchange  a  knife  for  a 
bite  of  apple.  Such  exchange  is  often  ignored  later;  for  example,  the  In- 
dian sometimes  wanted  his  blanket  returned,  or  the  child  desires  his  knife 
after  the  apple  is  eaten. 

A.  Counting,  about  the  only  number  process  needed,  naturally  developed 

from  rhythmic  movements  in  dealing  out  articles. 

B.  What  little  ratio  seeing  there  is,  is  inaccurate;  controlled  by  the  feelings. 

II.  Exchange — Made  with  more  thought;  articles  evaluated  by  less  emotional 

standards;  greater  equality  of  values  present. 
A.  Need  of  comparison  developed. 
1.  Indefinite  comparisons. 

*  From  the  "Concrete  Investigation  of  the  Material  of  English  Spelling,"  The  University  of 
South  Dakota,  Vermilion.     Price  10c. 


262  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

a.  Larger,  smaller,  longer,  taller,  etc. 

b.  Equals  recognized. 
2.  Definite  comparisons. 

a.  Sums  and  differences  developed  to  answer  how  much  more  or 

less. 

b.  Products  and  ratios  developed  to  answer  how  many  times  or 

what  part. 

B.  Need  of  measuring  felt. 

1.  Natural  standards — foot,  span,  etc. 

2.  Units  of  denominate-number  tables  developed. 

C.  Economy  demanded  division  of  wholes  into  parts — [Compare  money  val- 

ues, sales,  etc.,  of  pioneer  days  in  any  locality  with  the  same  of  modern 
days,  where  population  is  crowded:  25c  or  5c  the  smallest  coin  versus  cent 
today,  in  the  United  States;  money  equal  to  one-tenth  of  a  cent  in  many 
foreign  lands.  Eggs  by  the  dozen  (often  the  baker's  dozen,  13)  versus  by 
the  pound.  Numerous  illustrations  can  be  found.]  Hence,  there  were 
felt  certain  needs: 

1.  Need  of  fractions  to  express  the  fragments  or  fractured  wholes. 

2.  Need  of  complete  denominate-number  tables  with  definite  relations 

between  measures.     Standard  measures  fixed  by  law. 

3.  Symbols  needed  to  express  relations  in  long  computations. 

a.  Roman.  b.  Arabic  or  Hindu. 

III.  Merchantry  conducted  to  help  both  the  merchant  and  society. 

A.  Goods  evaluated  according  to — 

1.  Law  of  supply  and  demand. 

2.  What  others  charge. 

3.  Merchant's  need  of  selling — 

a.  To  prevent  loss. 

b.  To  prevent  bankruptcy,  causing  others  to  lose,  etc. 

B.  As  fractional  relations  became   complicated,  there  grew  up  a  decimal  sys- 

tem of  whole  numbers  and  fractions,  and,  in  some  countries,  of  measures, 
too. 

C.  The  merchant's  need  of  making  a  living  created  a  system  of  selling  for  profit. 

Keeping  account  of  what  goods  brought  best  and  poorest  returns  resulted 
in  a  study  of  "profit  and  loss,"  "book-keeping,"  etc. 

D.  A  merchant's  need  of  money  to  keep  the  business  going  resulted  in  various 

business  operations: 

1.  Partnership  (cumbersome,  awkward,  embarrassing  at  times.) 

2.  Borrowing  money  and  hence  paying  "interest,"  giving  a  "mortgage," 

making  a  "note." 
3..  Selling  goods  at  a  "discount"  for  the  sake  of  cash. 

4.  Organizing  stock  companies  and  issuing  "stocks  and  bonds." 

E.  Computing  discounts,  interest,  etc.,  "on  the  hundred"  found  easy,  hence 

"percentage"  developed. 

F.  The  need  of  the  merchant  particularly,  but  of  any  individual,  to  protect 

his  goods  against  loss  by  some  accident,  brought  about  the  business  of 
"insurance." 

G.  The  need  of  cooperation  for  the  sake  of  protection  and  economy  (of  time, 

energy,  and  money),  caused  "assessments"  to  be  made,  "taxes"  to  be 
levied,  and  a  system  of  "banking"  to  be  built  up. 


Arithmetic  Aids.  263 

IV.  The  selling  of  labor,  rather  than  of  produce,  created  a  need  for  certain  "men- 

suration" processes. 

A.  In  building  a  house,  barn,  poultry-house,  granary,  etc. 

1.  Excavating  for  cellar,  cistern,  drains,  etc. 

2.  Building  the  foundations,  chimneys,  and  other  masonry. 

3.  Carpentry — measurements  of  joists,  beams,  sheathing,  clapboarding, 

shingling,  etc. 

4.  Plastering,  painting,  papering,  and  related  processes. 

5.  Plumbing,  ventilating,  heating  problems. 

B.  In  planting  fields  and  gardens. 

1.  Land  measurements.  2.  Fencing.  3.  Drainage,  etc. 

C.  In  furnishing  a  home. 

1.  Carpet  laying.  2.  Curtain  making. 

3.  Planning  the  fuel  problem — wood  measure,  or  coal-bin  capacity,  for 
example,  and  other  processes  easily  seen. 

V.  Commerce  (quite  properly  applied  to  the  whole  subject,  but  used  in  its  more 

specific  sense  of  a  wider  exchange  of  merchantry). 

A.  Goods  evaluated  according  to — 

1.  World's  supply  and  demand. 

2.  Protection  of  home  industries,  "duties,"  "tariff,"  etc. 

3.  Cost  of  transportation. 

4.  Protection  of  retail  merchants. 

5.  Protection  of  labor — "sweatshops,"  etc. 

B.  Arithmetical  processes  in  addition  to  those  given  are  few — possibly  only 

"duties,"  "commission,"  and  "brokerage."     Of  course  there  is  a  wider 
use  of  all  the  earlier-developed  processes,  such  as  money-lending  and 
banking;  and  an  extension  of  mensuration  processes  as  needed  in  wholesale 
business — bins,  carloads,  tanks,  ships'  capacities,  etc. 
The  real  science  of  arithmetic  should  be  studied  in  college,  after  algebra  and 
geometry  have  been  pursued  in  high  school;  the  business  of    the    elementary 
school  is  to  distribute  the  subject-matter  so  that  pupils  who  leave  school  early 
will  have  had  time  to  secure  from  the  subject  two  things:  (1)  Knowledge  of  how 
a  process  should  be  done,  which  gives  the  child  a  sense  of  power;  and  (2)  prac- 
tice in  using  this  new  acquisition  (in  which  he  delights)  until  he  has  perfect  con- 
trol over  it.     Those  who  stay  in  school  throughout  the  eight  years  should  secure 
a  third  ability — that  of  applying  the  acquired  skill  in  computation  to  many  sorts 
of  problems  such  as  life  will  offer.     An  examination  of  the  common  practice  in 
distributing  subject-matter,  and  a  checking  of  the  results  with  children's  grow- 
ing feeling  of  need,  leads  one  to  make  very  little  change,  if  any,  in  the  usual 
distribution  of  arithmetical  material. 

In  general,  first-grade  pupils  are  in  the  "age  of  barter,"  where  counting  is 
about  the  only  process  needed;  second-,  third-,  and  fourth-grade  work  lies  in  the 
field  of  "exchange,"  with  need  of  the  fundamental  processes,  of  ratio-seeing,  of 
symbols  for  use  in  computation,  of  simple  denominate-number  tables,  and  of 
easy  fractions;  fifth-,  sixth-,  and  seventh-grade  pupils  have  need  of  all  preceding 
work,  and,  in  addition,  as  their  interests  lie  in  the  fields  of  "merchantry"  and 
"labor  exchange,"  they  master  simple  and  decimal  fractions,  percentage  and  its 
applications,  and  necessary  mensuration  processes.  Many  of  the  merchantry 
problems,  such  as  stocks  and  bonds,  insurance,  and  banking,  together  with  new 
problems  arising  in  "commerce,"  form  the  subject-matter  for  eighth-grade  work, 
if  arithmetic  is  there  given  a  place  on  the  program. 


264  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

B.— LESSON  PLANS. 

OUTLINE  OF  A  PLAN  FOR  TEACHING  PUPILS  HOW  TO  PAY  DIS- 
TANT INDEBTEDNESS. 

(By  Miss  Agnes  G.  Storie,  Normal,  111.) 

I.  Teacher  has  ready:  Receipt  for  registered  letter.     Return  notices  of  delivery 

of  registered  letters.  Applications  for  money  order.  (One  or  more  for 
each  pupil  to  fill  out.)  Money  order,  attached  coupon,  and  receipt.  Ad- 
vertising material  of  express  companies  showing  advantages  and  scope  of 
their  service.     Checks  (unused  and  returned)  with  stubs.     Drafts. 

II.  Assignment  made  before  lesson  was  given: 

Through  Miss  Patterson,  members  of  the  seventh  grade  ordered  seeds 
from  L.  L.  May  &  Co.,  St.  Paul,  to  the  amount  of  $5.99. 

1.  Find  out  so  far  as  possible  in  what  ways  Miss  Patterson  might  pay 

the  bill. 

2.  What  would  she  have  to  do  to  pay  the  debt  in  each  of  these  ways? 

3.  What  are  the  advantages  of  each  method? 

4.  Which  way  do  you  think  she  chose?     Be  ready  to  defend  your  posi- 

tion. 

III.  General  plan  of  recitation-work: 

A.  Last  month  seeds  were  ordered,  through  Miss  Patterson,  of  L.  L.  May  & 

Co.,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 

Before  the  company  would  fill  the  order  for  the  seeds  what  would 
they  expect  of  Miss  Patterson? 

Let  us  see  what  we  can  find  out  about  the  possible  means  Miss  Pat- 
terson might  have  employed  to  settle  the  account. 

B.  Questions  and  discussions  to  develop  subject-matter  and  to  organize  what 

children's  experience  furnishes: 

Means  of  making  payments  due  at  a  distance. 

1.  Sending  actual  money  (or  stamps)  by — 

a.  Ordinary  mail. 

(1)  Advantages.     (2)   Disadvantages. 

b.  Registered  letter. 

(1)   Manner   of   registering.     (2)    Fee.     (3)    Advantages    and 
disadvantages. 

c.  Express. 

(1)  Service  to  government  and  banks.     {'2)    Cost.     (3)    Ad- 
vantages. 

2.  Sending  an  order  for  money. 

a.  Money-order. 

(1)  Postoffice — Manner  of  securing;  form;  fee;  advantages. 

(2)  Express — Comparison  with  pdstoflice  money-order;  advan- 
tages. 

(3)  Telegraphic — Method  employed;  fee;  advantages. 

b.  Personal  check. 

Review  of  form;  fee;  advantages. 

c.  Drafts. 

Kinds;  parties;  exchange;  advantages. 

IV.  Result  secured — Children  taught  (1)  to  notice  ordinary  business  transactions 

and  to  contribute  their  knowledge  to  a  common  cause;  (2)  the  various 


Arithmetic  Aids. — Recitations  on  Interest.  265 

ways  of  canceling  indebtedness  at  a  distance;  and  (3)  the  manner  of  em- 
ploying each  of  the  several  methods,  with  its  relative  advantages. 

A  SERIES  OF  OBSERVED  RECITATIONS  ON  INTEREST. 

(Given  to  a  Seventh  Grade  by  Miss  Carrie  F.  Saunders,  Onalaska,  Wis.) 
First  Recitation. 

A.  Preparation:  "In  our  last  work  what  reasons  did  we  find  for  a  merchant's 
giving  a  discount  to  a  customer?  [Merchant  needs  money,  so  prefers  to  take  less 
for  the  goods  than  he  once  planned  to  do,  etc.]  Is  there  anything  else  a  man 
may  honestly  do  when  he  needs  money?  [Borrow.]  Is  it  fair  to  pay  a  person 
for  the  use  of  his  money?     The  amount  paid  is  called  interest." 

B.  Development:  "On  what  was  discount  reckoned?  [On  list  price,  marked 
price,  first  remainder,  second  remainder,  etc.;  cost,  or  bill.]  On  what  is  the 
interest  reckoned?  [On  the  amount  borrowed  from  the  one  man's  standpoint; 
on  the  amount  loaned  from  the  other's  standpoint.]  We  need  a  name  for  this 
amount  so  we  can  more  easily  talk  about  it;  it  is  called  the  principal  [note  spell- 
ing of  last  syllable]." 

"I  want  to  borrow  one  dollar  from  you  for  a  year.  How  much  do  you  think 
it  would  be  fair  for  me  to  pay  you?"  [Different  pupils  answered  "10c," 
"25c,"  "6c,"  "Oh,  nothing."] 

"Suppose  Gay  did  lend  me  $1.00  for  a  year  and  I  paid  him  10c,  what  per 
cent  of  the  amount  borrowed  would  I  be  paying?  Then  he  lends  money  at 
what  %?  [10%.]  At  what  rate  would  James  be  lending  money,  if  he  asked  me 
6c  for  the  use  of  his  $1.00?  Kenneth  (who  wanted  25c)?  Then  the  rate  of  in- 
terest means  what?  [Accept  any  satisfactory  definition.]  Just  as  you  differed 
in  what  you  thought  it  fair  to  charge  me,  so  men  differ  in  the  business  world,  and 
a  few  selfish  ones  take  advantage  of  another's  need  and  charge  more  at  that 
time  than  usual.  Hence  the  law  has  fixed  upon  a  rate  that  is  counted  fair. 
The  laws  of  the  several  states  differ;  but,  no  matter  what  the  law,  if  a  man 
charges  in  that  state  more  than  the  rate  fixed  by  law  he  is  guilty  of  usury.  [You 
may  recall  the  name  "usurer"  given  to  Shylock;  we  are  not  going  to  deal  with 
any  people  guilty  of  usury,  but  you'll  find  the  term  in  your  book — so  I  give  it.]" 

"In  some  oral  problems  that  I  give  you,  you  ma}r  each  time  tell  me  the 
principal,  the  interest,  and  the  rate.  [Many  examples  rapidly  given.]  I  lend 
$100  at  6%;  at  10%;  at  12£%.  I  lend  $100  to  you  for  a  year  at  8%;  what  will 
you  pay  me?  At  7%;  at  9%;  at  9J%;  \Q\%;  11|%;  12J%.  [This  series  due 
to  children's  missing  one  question  including  the  \%\  Try  $200.  Lend  it  at 
4%.  Lend  $300  at  3%;  $100  at  3^%;  $200  at  3J%;  $300  at  Z\%;  $350  at  Z\%. 
[One  child  permitted  to  go  to  blackboard  for  this.]  Let  us  try  two  years.  Lend 
$100  at  6%  for  two  years.  How  much  interest  would  you  receive?  $300  at 
4%  for  three  years;  $350  at  3§%  for  two  years."  Form  for  indicating  operation 
here  developed,  using  children's  former  knowledge  of  discount. 
2   X   .035   X   $350   =   $24.50 

Assignment,  end  of  first  recitation — Many  problems  demanding  the  finding  of 
any  interest  on  any  sum  for  any  whole  number  of  years. 

Remainder  of  lessons  merely  outlined,  with  a  few  especially  good  questions 
interjected: 

Second  recitation:  "If  I  lend  you  $100  for  1  year  at  6%,  what  must  you  pay 
me  back?     $106.     Which  part  of  this  is  principal?     Which  interest?     What  do 


266  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

we  call  the  whole  [teacher  tells,  the  amount]?"  Children  asked  to  give  the 
amounts  for  $100,  2  years,  6%;  $200,  2  years,  6%;  $300,  4  years,  5%;  $400, 3  years, 
3%.  "Perhaps  I  do  not  know  the  number  of  years,  but  do  know  that  I  loaned 
the  money  in  190S,  and  had  it  paid  back  in  1910.  I  borrow  money  on  a  certain 
date  in  1905  and  pay  it  back  on  the  same  date  in  1913.  A  man  borrowed  $200 
Jan.  1,  1904,  at  5%,  and  paid  it  Jan.  1,  1910;  what  interest  did  he  pay?" 

"We  have  another  situation  to  learn  today.  A  man  may  want  money  for 
just  a  part  of  a  year,  just  a  few  days  even,  to  tide  him  over  a  situation;  what 
would  be  fair  for  him  to  pay?  The  whole  year's  interest?  I  wish  to  borrow 
$100  at  6%  for  1  month;  what  should  I  pay?  $100  at  8%  for  6  months;  $100 
at  8%  for  9  months;  $200  at  3%  for  3  months;  for  1|  months;  for  2  months; 
etc.     [Prove  each.]" 

"Mr.  Brown  borrowed  $300  at  7%  and  paid  off  the  note  in  4  years  and  5 
months.     How  much  did  Mr.  Brown  pay  the  lender  in  all?" 

Assignment,  end  of  second  day — "You  may  make  up  some  problems  in  which 
the  time  always  includes  some  parts  of  years.  Find  a  form  of  operation  that  will 
simplify  your  work." 

Third  day:  Teacher  uses  examples  brought  in  by  pupils  and  leads  them  to 
select  a  form  of  statement  that  will  indicate  the  interest;  one  to  indicate  the 
amount;  e.  g.: 

$1420  at  6%  for  4|  years. 

4.5   X     06   X  $1420   =   the  interest. 

4.5   X    -06   X   $1420  +  $1420   =    the  amount. 

Other  forms  worked  out  and  discussed;  e.  g.: 
127   X  $1420 


=   amount. 


100 

"I  have  a  new  thing  to  propose.  I  want  to  borrow  the  same  old  $100,  but 
one  year  isn't  long  enough;  nor  is  1  year  and  6  months  long  enough.  I  want  it  a 
few  days  longer.  Will  you  charge  me?  [Children  answer — some  "no,"  some 
"yes."]  It  is  good  business  to  charge  me.  Suppose  I  wish  the  money  for  1  year 
6  months  and  15  days.  How  can  you  treat  the  15  days?"  From  this  and  other 
problems  children  tell  of  different  ways  to  use  the  days.  Most  chose  to  reduce 
the  months  and  days  to  a  fraction  of  a  year  and  found  several  ways  of  doing 
so;  e.  g.,  6  mo.  15  da.  =  §  yr.  +  1/24  yr.  =  13/24  yr.  Or  195  da.  =  195/360 
yr.  =  13/24  yr.     Or  6^/12  yr.  =   13/24  yr. 

Several  examples  tried,  with  such  time  periods  as  2  years  7  months  18  days 
given. 

"I  borrowed  some  money  on  April  1st  and  returned  it  April  10th.  How  long 
did  I  keep  it?  [10  days — no,  first  day  didn't  count — 9  days.]  How  long  is 
money  kept  if  borrowed  on  the  2d  of  a  month  and  returned  on  the  22d?  On 
the  3d  and  returned  on  the  30th?  On  the  5th  and  returned  on  the  12th?  On 
the  8th  and  returned  on  the  17th?  On  the  4th  of  July,  1776,  and  returned  on 
the  9th  of  September,  1783?" 

Drill  on  examples  from  text  and  other  arithmetics,  in  which  differences  in 
dates  must  be  found. 

The  succeeding  recitation  topics  are  evident  in  this  list  of  the  steps  used  in 
development: 

1.  Borrowing  is  one  means  of  securing  money  when  needed. 


Arithmetic  Aids. — Teaching  Insurance.  267 

2.  Fair  to  pay  for  such  use  of  money. 

3.  Interest  the  name  for  money  so  paid.     Principal  the  name  for  sum  bor- 

rowed. 

4.  Rate  of  interest  fixed  by  law  in  most  states.    (Usury,  a  rate  above  the 

legal  rate.) 

5.  Drill  upon  recognition  of  principal,  rate,  and  interest,  in  each  problem. 

6.  Drill  on  getting  interest  when  principal  and  rate  are  known. 

a.  Principal  left  the  same  and  rate  frequently  changed. 

b.  Principal  changed  and  rate  (3§%)  kept. 

c.  Principal  and  rate  both  changed. 

d.  Time  added — full  years  only. 

7.  Form  of  expression  developed  through  thought  process. 

S.  Testing  all  previous  work,  clearing  up  inaccuracies  of  form,  of  grading 

results,  of  writing  per  cents  in  different  ways,  etc. 
9.  "Amount"  learned  as  the  sum  of  principal  and  interest  due. 

10.  Finding  time  when  dates  are  given:  years  only  to  subtract;  c.  g.,  from 

Jan.  1,  1903,  to  Jan.  1,  1910. 

11.  Drill  on  finding  interest  for — 

a.  Parts  of  years — months.  b.  Years  and  months. 

12.  Expression  of  interest  in  one  statement.     Amount  attempted  to  be  simi- 

larly expressed.     Easy  for  one  year.     Difficult  for  longer  time. 

13.  Finding  interest  for — 

a.  Days — part  of  a  month  or  part  of  a  year. 

b.  Months  and  days. 

c.  Years,  months,  and  days — Expression  for  this  developed. 

14.  Finding  time  from  dates  given,  including  differences  in  months  and  days 

as  well  as  years. 

15.  Drill  on  finding  simple  interest  in  problems  involving  all  the  situations 

developed. 

16.  Notes — need  of  making — form,  etc.,  discussed  and  taught  if  needed. 

17.  Stock  "dividends"  and  bond  "coupons"  discussed  but  not  taught  unless 

the  local  course  of  study  should  demand  it. 

18.  Compound  interest,  discussed  only. 

19.  Partial  payments,  discussed  only. 


A   PLAN   FOR  TEACHING   INSURANCE  TO  UPPER-GRADE   PUPILS. 

(By  Miss  Agnes  Storie,  Normal,  111.) 

Teacher's  Organization: 

A.  Race  need:  How  can  persons  and  property  be  protected  against   loss    by 

calamity? 

B.  Satisfied  by  the  development  of  the  present  system  of  insurance. 

1.  Object  of  insurance — To  protect  a  person,  or  family,  or  property, 
against  loss  by  calamity. 
a.  Person 

1.  Death,  hence  family  helped. 

2.  Accident,  hence  self  helped,   j 

3.  Illness,  self  helped.  \  Family  indirectly  helped. 

4.  Annuity,  self  helped.  J 


268  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

b.  Property 

1.  Fire.  7.  Flood.  10.  Water  loss. 

2.  Wind.  8.  Accident  (plate  11.  Transportation 

3.  Hail.  glass  windows,  loss. 

4.  Sea  dangers.  stock,  standing  12.  Explosion. 

5.  Theft.  grain.)  13.  Builder's  insur- 

6.  Wreck.  9.  Lightning.  ance,  etc. 

2.  How  secure  this  protection?     Plan  of  procedure  illustrated  by  the 
plan  employed  in  securing  fire  insurance. 

Property  owner  seeks  insurer,  or  underwriter. 

1.  States  location  and  value  of  his  property. 

a.  Real  value — tested  by — 

1.  Opinion  of  many. 

2.  Original  cost  plus  improvement  and   minus 

deteriorations  from:  Change  in  town;  change 
in  locality;  change  in  all  property;  etc. 

2.  States  proportion  of  value  for  which  he  wishes  to  insure 

his  property. 
a.  Insured  value — may  be  the  same  as  real  value,  but 
is  usually  less — because  owner  doesn't  care  to 
pay  high  rate. 

3.  States  time  for  which  he  wishes  to  insure  his  property! 

a.  30  days,  60  days,  1  year,  etc. 

b.  Rate  for  three  years  equals  less  than  three  times 

rate  for  one  year,  hence  an  advantage  to  owner 
to  insure  for  a  long  time.  Advantage  to  com- 
pany to  have  money  to  loan.  Rate  for  five  years 
equals  about  three  times  rate  for  one  year. 

b.  Underwriter  then — 

1.  Inspects  property. 

2.  Agrees  (or  not)  to  insure  it. 

3.  Classifies  it  according  to  the  risk. 

a.  Protection. 

1.  Best  sort — ideal  protection. 

2,  3,  4,  5.     These  intermediate  classes  pertain  to 

buildings  with  less  and  less  protection,  or 
which  contain  inflammables. 
6.  Almost  none,  or  none. 

b.  Construction. 

1.  Material  of  which  built. 

2.  Age  of  building. 

3.  Relation  of  open  spaces — stairways,  air-shafts, 

pipes,  etc., — to  places  of  fire-beginnings. 

4.  Condition  of  flues,  etc. 

5.  Kind  of  heat  employed,  etc. 

6.  Sort  of  building — barn,  house,  store,  etc. 

c.  Location. 

1.  Isolated,  or  near  other  buildings,  in  city. 

2.  Hill  or  valley,  etc.,  in  country. 

4.  Tells  owner  of  rate. 

c.  Property  owner  agrees  to  insure. 


Arithmetic  Aids. — Teaching  Insurance.  269 

d.  Underwriter  then  collects  premium  from  owner  and  writes 
and  gives  owner  a  policy. 
3.  Definitions  required  during  lesson: 

a.  The  insurer,  insurance  company,  and  underwriters,  are  names 

applied  to  the  person  or  firm  which  guarantees  to  pay  to  the 
property  owner  a  certain  sum  in  case  he  loses  his  property. 

b.  The  insured  is  the  person  who  secures  the  protection  of  an 

insurance  company. 

c.  The  policy  is  the  written  agreement  of  the  underwriters  to  pay 

a  sum  of  money  to  the  property  owner  in  case  of  loss. 

d.  The  face  of  the  policy  is  the  sum  agreed  to  be  paid  in  case  of 

loss. 

e.  The  real  value  of  the  property  is  the  value  it  possesses  for  any 

one,  regardless  of  sentiment  or  original  cost. 

f.  The  insured  value  is  the  amount  for  which  the  property  is  in- 

sured. 

g.  The  premium  is  the  sum  paid  by  the  owner  for  his  guaranteed 

protection. 
C.  Materials  needed.     Some  real  policies  to  show.     Some  good  problems  ready 
to  propose. 

Method  of  Procedure  in  Class. 

Two  to  five  recitations  are  needed,  according  to  age  of  pupils  and  previous  training. 

A.  Preparation:  (The  topic  may  have  been  assigned  and  so  children  may  have 

been  thinking  about  insurance.  Also,  most  upper-grade  children  know 
from  their  own  experience  something  about  insurance.)  An  atmosphere 
of  work  is  created  by  the  teacher's  attitude  and  enthusiasm. 

B.  Development:  How  could  a  person  protect  himself  against  the  loss  of  his 

property  by  some  calamity?  (By  insuring  the  property.)  Against  what 
might  he  insure  his  property?  (Fire,  wind,  hail.)  If  a  merchant  were 
shipping  goods  from  foreign  countries,  against  what  might  he  wish  to  in- 
sure? (Against  marine  dangers.)  (Perhaps  children  recall  Antonio's  ven- 
tures in  the  "Merchant  of  Venice.") 

How  should  one  proceed  to  get  his  property  insured?  (Go  to  an  in- 
surance agent  or  company.)  What  other  names  are  there  for  insurance 
company?  (Underwriters,  insurers.)  What  is  an  underwriter?  (Defini- 
tion given.) 

What  is  the  individual  who  takes  out  an  insurance  called?  (The  in- 
sured.)    Who  is  the  insured?     (Definition.) 

What  will  the  company  do  before  agreeing  to  insure  the  property? 
(Inspect  property,  ascertain  value,  liability  to  risk,  etc.) 

How  is  the  value  set  upon  the  property  determined?  (See  Teacher's 
Organization,  p.  268.) 

What  is  the  sum  for  which  a  person  gets  his  property  insured  called? 
(Insured  value,  insurance,  face  of  policy.)  What  is  the  face  of  the  policy? 
The  insured  value?     The  insurance?     (Definitions.) 

How  does  the  insured  value  compare  in  amount  with  the  real  value, 
usually?  (Insured  value  is  smaller  than  real  value.)  Why  does  an  in- 
surance company  prefer  to  insure  property  for  less  than  its  real  value? 
(Discussion  of  lessened  possibility  for  dishonesty  on  part  of  insured.) 
Under  what  conditions  will  a  company  insure  property  for  its  full  value? 
(Discussion.) 


270  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

How  may  a  company  protect  itself  against  a  large  loss  in  case  an  in- 
surer desires  to  insure  a  valuable  piece  of  property;  for  instance,  a  building 
occupying  a  large  portion  of  a  city  block?  (It  may  assume  full  risk  and 
reinsure,  or  transfer  part  of  risk  directly  to  another  company,  assuming 
only  such  portion  as  it  wishes.) 

What  prevents  a  person's  insuring  his  property  in  several  companies 
for  more  than  its  real  value?     (See  conditions  of  policies.) 

What  right  does  the  company  reserve  instead  of  paying  damages? 
(Right  to  make  repairs.) 

What  would  a  company  do  in  case  of  partial  loss?  (See  "average 
clause.") 

For  how  long  a  time  may  property  be  insured?  (30  days,  60  days, 
1  year,  3  years,  5  years,  7  years,  are  usual  periods.)  What  determines  the 
length  of  time  for  which  the  insurer  will  take  the  risk?  (Condition  of 
property,  its  location,  probable  date  of  sale,  etc.)  Show  why  these  con- 
ditions affect  the  time  element  of  the  agreement.  How  definite  is  the 
time  mentioned  as  the  expiration  of  the  agreement?  (See  policies.)  Why 
is  this  necessary?  (Discussion.)  Why  does  not  a  company  insure  prop- 
erty for  very  long  periods?     (Discussion.) 

How  does  the  rate  for  a  longer  period  compare  with  that  for  a  shorter 
period?  (It  is  smaller  in  proportion.)  How  does  this  profit  each  party 
to  the  transaction?     (See  Teacher's  Organization,  p.  268.) 

What  does  the  company  expect  of  the  insured  for  assuming  the  risk? 
(A  premium.)  What  is  a  premium?  (Definition.)  How  is  it  possible 
for  an  insurance  company  to  guarantee  to  pay  so  large  a  sum  to  the  in- 
sured in  case  of  loss?  (Discussion  of  per  cent  of  losses  and  investment 
of  moneys  received.) 

On  what  is  the  premium  reckoned?  (Face  of  policy.)  In  what  way 
is  the  rate  stated?  (In  dollars  per  hundred  or  thousand,  and  per  cent  of 
insured  value.) 

(Problems  to  test  understanding  of  situation  may  be  introduced  here, 
or  reserved  for  use  after  development  of  whole  situation,  according  to 
maturity  of  class.) 

What  does  owner  lose  in  case  of  destruction  of  property?  (Premium 
and  part  of  value  not  insured.)  What  does  company  lose?  (Insured 
value  minus  premium.)  What  does  the  combined  loss  of  owner  and  com- 
pany equal?     (Real  value  of  property.) 

What  determines  the  rate  charged  for  insuring  a  given  piece  of  prop- 
erty? (The  liability  to  risk.)  What  factors  determine  the  probable  risk 
incurred?  (Nature  of  protection,  construction,  and  location.)  Which  of 
these  factors  is  considered  first?  (Protection.)  (Show  agent's  book  giv- 
ing rates  for  groups  into  which  property  may  be  classified  according  to 
protection  offered.  See  Teacher's  Organization,  p.  268.)  What  is  it 
necessary  for  the  company  to  do  in  order  that  the  rate  may  be  fixed  so 
far  as  this  factor  is  concerned?     (Determine   in   which  class  property  is.) 

What  is  the  next  factor  to  be  considered  in  determining  the  rate  of 
premium?  (Character  of  structure.)  Illustrate,  how  details  of  construc- 
tion affect  the  rate.     (See  Teacher's  Organization.) 

What  is  the  third  factor  in  determining  the  rate?  (Location.)  Show 
how  location  affects  rate.     (See  Teacher's  Organization.) 


Helps  in  Geography. — Latitude  and  Longitude.        271 

How  have  these  rates  of  insurance  been  so  definitely  determined? 
(Through  statistics  kept  during  a  period  of  years.  To  illustrate:  Sup- 
pose that  it  is  found  that  of  every  6000  dwellings  insured  for  $.'5500  each, 
60  are  destroyed  by  fire  annually.  What  sum  is  needed  annually  to  make 
good  the  loss?  (60  X  $3500  or  $210,000.)  What  is  the  total  insured 
value?     (6000  X  $3500  or  $21,000,000.) 

What  is  the  relation  of  the  loss  to  the  insured  value?  (The  loss  of 
$210,000  is  1%  of  the  insured  value,  $21,000,000.)  What  %  of  insured 
value  must  company  ask  to  cover  actual  loss?  This  is  the  so-called  natural 
rate  of  insurance.  What  must  the  company  make  besides  this  actual  loss? 
(Expenses  and  profit.)  How  will  the  rate  they  charge  for  taking  the 
risk  compare  with  this  "natural"  rate?  (It  will  be  larger.)  Yes,  they 
are  said  to  "load"  the  "natural"  rate — to  2%,  perhaps. 

What  does  the  company  give  the  insured  to  show  he  has  purchased 
protection?  (A  policy.)  What  is  a  policy?  (Definition.)  (Insurance 
policies  should  be  consulted  and  discussed.)  Mention  at  least  six  condi- 
tions imposed  upon  the  insured  in  a  policy.  How  may  the  insured  forfeit 
his  policy? 
C.  Application. 

Discuss  the  value  of  insurance  to  the  insured.  Outline  the  manner  of 
insuring  property.  Give  a  two-minute  talk  on  the  factors  determining 
the  rate  of  premium.  Give  the  essential  conditions  of  a  policy.  (Pupils 
of  class  should  supplement  and  criticise  the  individual  recitations  until 
subject-matter  is  clear.)  Solution  of  problems  involving  real  situations. 
Special  reports  on  fires  and  their  causes. 

VI.— HELPS  IN  GEOGRAPHY. 

A.— ILLUSTRATIVE     LESSON      UPON     LATITUDE     AND 
LONGITUDE  FOR  FOURTH  GRADE  OR  ABOVE. 

Note:  The  following  plan,  though  called  one  lesson,  is  intended  to  cover  from  five  to  ten 
recitation  periods,  according  to  the  ability  of  the  class.  The  special  treatment  is  for  beginning 
fourth-grade  pupils,  but  the  same  general  plan  has  been  successfully  used  in  higher  grades. 

A.  Race  Need  or  Aim:  To  find  a  way  accurately  to  locate  places  on  the  earth's 

surface. 

B.  Satisfaction  found  in  the  study  of  latitude  and  longitude. 

1.  Means  of  locating  places — 

a.  In  a  school-building. 

b.  In  the  country. 

c.  In  a  city — ■ 

1.  By  well-known  buildings. 

2.  By  street  and  number. 

d.  Anywhere  on  the  earth's  surface — 

1.  By  natural  objects. 

2.  By  latitude  and  longitude. 

a.  Necessity  for  parallels  and  meridians. 

2.  Latitude — 

a.  How  measured. 

b.  Parallels. 

1.  Meaning  of  name. 


272  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

2.  Location  of. 

3.  Practical  use  of. 
c.  Function  of  latitude. 

3.  Longitude. 

a.  How  measured. 

b.  Meridians. 

1.  Meaning  of  name. 

2.  Location  of. 

3.  Practical  use  of. 

c.  Function  of  longitude. 

4.  Value  of  latitude  and  longitude  used  together. 

C.  Materials:  Globe,  maps  of  several  kinds,  plain  and  colored  crayon,  material 
for  children  to  use  in  map  making,  sensible  and  interesting  localities  with 
their  latitude  and  longitude  hunted  up. 

Method. — Preparation — 1.  Questions  leading  children  to  see  the  different 
methods  of  locating  places.  For  example:  "Elmer,  could  you  take  this  picture 
to  Miss  Speckman  for  me?  Tell  me  where  you  will  go,  that  I  may  be  sure  you 
know  the  room."  (If  Elmer  doesn't  know,  let  some  child  tell  him.)  Ask  other 
questions  about  the  location  of  various  rooms — the  music-room,  the  museum, 
the  physical  laboratory,  the  library,  etc.,  letting  children  see  that  we  must  have 
knowledge  of  some  rooms,  as  "guide  posts"  to  us  in  finding  others. 

2.  In  the  country,  we  tell  strangers  where  to  find  desired  houses,  roads,  etc., 
by  the  hills,  mountains,  bluffs,  valleys,  rivers,  bridges,  cross-roads,  or  by  houses 
passed.  Or  we  may  speak  of  the  number  of  miles.  Bring  this  out  by  questions. 
If  the  school  is  in  the  country,  children  may  be  asked  to  tell  how  to  reach  their 
homes,  etc. 

3.  In  a  city,  when  asked  by  a  stranger  to  locate  some  place,  we  usually  ask 
him  whether  he  knows  where  the  postoffice,  hotel,  library,  or  normal  school  is; 
or  we  show  him  one  of  these  buildings  as  his  "guide  post."  Ask  children  to  lo- 
cate (in  Winona)  Hardt's  art  store,  their  own  homes,  etc.,  and  their  answers  will 
prove  the  above  statement  true.  Is  there  any  better  or  surer  way  of  locating 
places?  (By  knowing  the  street  and  number  of  the  house.)  How  could  a 
stranger  find  the  street  and  house?  (He  would  need  a  map  giving  names  of  the 
city  streets,  etc.     Children  have  made  city  maps,  and  hence  understand  this.) 

4.  "How  are  places  on  the  Earth's  surface  located?"  By  mountains,  rivers, 
lakes,  etc.  Buffalo  is  at  the  eastern  end  of  Lake  Erie.  New  Orleans  is  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi  river;  etc. 

5.  "What  will  sailors  on  the  ocean  do,  when  they  have  no  mountains  or  other 
forms  to  guide  them?  Do  you  feel  that  they  need  a  map  with  something  like 
our  streets  and  cross  streets  on  it?  Suppose  we  find  out,  today,  what  men  have 
done  to  help  sailors  and  others  to  locate  places  accurately." 

Development. — 1.  "Look  at  these  maps  and  the  globe  and  see  whether  you 
find  any  lines  that  cross  one  another  like  streets.  Are  they  on  all  maps?  Look 
through  your  geographies.  Why  haven't  you  noticed  them  before?  Yes,  they 
are  light;  men  have  drawn  them  so  because  there  are  really  no  such  lines  or 
"streets"  on  the  earth's  surface  itself,  but  are  just  imagined  to  be  there.  [Use 
globe  as  much  as  possible.]  Draw  your  fingers  over  some  of  the  lines  which  you 
see.     Which  lines  run  north  and  south?     Which  run  east  and  west?" 

2.  "What  do  you  notice  about  the  east  and  west  lines?  Frank,  Hattie,  and 
Walter,  may  put  their  fingers  here.  Each  may  follow  his  line,  going  east.  Others 
may  watch  the  fingers.     Were  they  the  same  distance  apart  all  of  the  time? 


Helps  in  Geography. — Latitude  and  Longitude. 


273 


Rosse,  put  on  the  board  some  lines  that  are  the  same  distance  apart  throughout. 
What  are  such  lines  called?  [Parallel  lines.]  Which  lines  on  the  glove  have  we 
just  found  to  be  parallel  lines?  [East  and  west.]  And,  because  they  are  parallel, 
they  are  called  a  name  which  shows  that.  [Teacher  writes  parallels  on  the  board 
and  children  learn  to  spell  the  name.]     Trace  the  parallels  again.     And  again." 

3.  Just  as  each  street  in  Winona  is  named  or  numbered,  so  each  parallel  has 
a  number.  Starting  at  the  equator  (children  have  learned  about  the  equator  and 
know  reason  for  its  name),  the  men  who  first  planned  these  lines  made  89  parallels 
between  the  equator  and  the  north  pole,  and  89  parallels*  between  the  equator 
and  the  south  pole.  (Let  children  point  to  north  pole,  south  pole,  equator,  and 
then  tell  how  many  parallels  in  each  half.) 

"As  all  cannot  easily  see  the  globe,  I  will  draw  a  map  on  this  board,  and  we 
can  continue  our  study  upon  that.  [Teacher  draws  large  circle  with  arm  for  the 
radius,  locates  equator  with  colored  crayon,  and  numbers  it  O — the  starting 
point.]  We  have  a  street  in  Winona  (Center  street)  from  which  the  houses  are 
numbered  both  ways.  Just  as  we  have  225  east  Fifth  street,  and  225  west  Fifth 
street,  so  we  have  a  fortieth  parallel  north  of  the  equator,  and  a  fortieth  parallel 
south  of  the  equator,  as  the  parallels  are  numbered  from  the  equator  both  north 
and  south. 

"My  map  is  too  small  for  me  to  put  in  all  of  the  parallels,  so  I  shall  put  in 
only  eight,  letting  you  imagine  the  absent  ones."  (Teacher  talks  as  she  draws, 
explaining  how  to  divide  each  quadrant  into  thirds,  and  then  each  third  into 
thirds;  how  to  connect  the  opposite  points  of  division,  making  eight  parallels; 
how  nine  parallels  have  been  omitted  between  each  two  drawn,  and  hence  the 
first  shown  must  be  numbered  10.  Then  derive  from  children  the  numbers  for 
the  other  parallels,  and  for  the  point  marking  the  pole.  In  the  same  way,  put 
the  parallels  into  the  southern  half  of  the  map.     (Figures  1  and  2.) 


JV? 


Application  of  work  so  far  done. — "Now  let  us  see  how  we  can  use  these 
'streets'  that  we  have  called  parallels.  Each  of  us  may  select  a  'street'  upon 
which  to  live,  and  the  others  may  try  to  find  that  street.  I  have  decided  upon 
mine.  I  live  on  parallel  40,  north.  Find."  (Children  tell,  one  by  one,  where 
they  live,  and  others  find.     Many  given  by  teacher,  varying  the  form  of  ques- 

*  Parallels  here  understood  to  be  one  degree  apart.  Term  "degree"  not  yet  familiar  to 
children. 


274  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

tion,  and  using  term  latitude  frequently;  for  example:  "A  friend  of  mine  lives  on 
the  thirtieth  parallel,  south  latitude;  find.") 

Other  devices. — The  teacher  may  vary  the  succeeding  recitations  by  using 
some  of  the  following: 

1.  Teacher  makes  x's  on  various  parallels  and  children  describe  the  location, 
seeing  how  few  errors  are  made. 

2.  Teacher  writes  children's  initials  at  certain  places  and  children  tell  loca- 
tions. 

3.  The  teacher  may  write  the  descriptions  of  various  locations,  and  let  chil- 
dren locate  them  on  the  teacher's  map,  or  on  individual  maps  made  by  the  chil- 
dren for  seat-work.  Teacher  may  give  several  forms  of  expression,  such  as:  (a) 
Forty  degrees  north  of  the  equator,  (b)  Forty  degrees  north  latitude,  (c)  40 
degrees  north  latitude,  (d)  The  fortieth  parallel  north  of  the  equator,  (e)  40° 
north  latitude,  (f)  40°  N.  Lat.  Children  locate  by  x's;  or  the  descriptions 
may  be  numbered  and  children  use  corresponding  numbers  on  map.  The  use 
of  the  word  (and  sign  for)  "degrees"  may  be  taught  by  showing  children  that  in- 
stead of  saying,  "We  live  on  the  fifth  street  from  here";  we  say,  "We  live  five 
blocks  from  here."  So  I  may  say,  "I  live  ten  blocks  north  of  the  equator," 
rather  than,  "I  live  on  the  tenth  parallel  north  of  the  equator."  But  these 
blocks  are  not  like  our  city  blocks,  for  each  is  nearly  seventy  miles  long,  and  is 
called  a  degree.  "Show  me  the  'Brown  Baby's'  home,  which  is  thirty  degrees 
south  latitude";  etc. 

4.  If  children  have  read  "Seven  Little  Sisters,"  the  home  of  each  "sister" 
may  be  located. 

5.  Follow  these  lessons  by  some  which  will  show  locations  of  places  between 
the  drawn  parallels.  First  use  35,  45,  15,  5,  etc.  Later  take  29,  71,  63,  etc., 
until  children  freely  locate  any  place  upon  the  right  parallel. 

After  sufficient  seat-work  and  class  testing  have  been  given  to  prove  that 
pupils  understand  latitude  fairly  well,  lead  them  to  see  that  a  hunt  for  a  person 
living  40  degrees  north  would  be  worse  than  hunting  for  a  person  on  Broadway 
in  Winona,  since  the  40th  parallel  is  almost  20,000  miles  long,  whereas  Broad- 
way is  not  over  3  miles  long,  whatever  way  we  count  it.  "What  does  a  hack 
driver  need  besides  knowing  Broadway,  to  find  a  man's  house  readily?  [Num- 
ber on  house;  or  else  the  cross  street,  if  the  house  is  on  a  corner.]  What  would 
help  us  quickly  to  find  one  another  on  our  parallels?"  Children  may  answer 
"north  and  south  parallels,"  or  "cross  parallels,"  or  "cross  lines."  If  the  first 
or  second,  the  teacher  says,  "Look  at  the  globe  and  at  your  maps.  Are  there 
any  cross  lines?  Let  us  see  whether  they  are  also  parallel.  [Let  a  few  children 
trace,  us  was  done  with  parallels;  others  watch.]  Were  the  fingers  the  same  dis- 
tance apart  all  the  way?  [No.  They  all  came  together,  at  each  pole.]  These 
north  and  south  lines  are  called  meridians,  but  you  could  not  now  understand 
the  reason  for  the  name."  (Teach  spelling  and  pronunciation,  and  let  children 
trace  meridians.  Then  try  both  parallels  and  meridians  to  see  that  there  is  no 
confusion  of  names.) 

"Let  us  now  draw  some  of  the  meridians  on  our  map.  As  with  the  parallels, 
we  haven't  room  for  all,  so  I  shall  omit  nine  between  each  two,  as  we  did  with 
the  parallels."  (Teacher  explains  as  she  works,  dividing  equator  into  halves, 
each  half  into  thirds,  and  each  one-third  of  the  one-half  into  thirds  again.  Draw- 
ing the  lines  from  pole  to  pole  through  the  points  of  intersection  will  give  the 
seventeen  meridians  within  the  circumference,  the  halves  of  which  now  make 
the  two  outer  meridians.) 


Helps  in  Geography. — Latitude  and  Longitude. 


275 


"As  the  equator  divided  the  south  parallels  from  the  north,  so  we  must  have 
one  meridian  which  will  divide  the  east  meridians  from  the  west  meridians. 
Long  ago  one  such  was  chosen  and  called  the  prime  meridian.  I  will  help  you 
about  the  meaning  of  prime:  What  is  a  primer?  [Teacher  writes  word  on  black- 
board.] Yes,  your  first  reading-book.  What  is  the  primary  room  at  school? 
What  do  I  mean  when  I  say,  'These  are  prime  oranges?'  "  {First  class  oranges.) 
(Older  children  may  know  of  political  meetings  called  primaries,  of  England's 
prime  minister,  and  possibly  of  prime  factors.)  "Let  us  now  look  at  these  words 
I  have  upon  the  board.  What  likeness  can  you  see?  And  what  general  mean- 
ing do  we  find  in  all?     The  prime  meridian  must  mean ?"     (The  first  meridian, 

or  the  starting  point.) 

"I  will  mark  (with  crayon)  the  prime  meridian  on  our  globe  and  then  I  want 
you  to  watch  the  globe  while  I  turn  it.  Where  do  you  now  see  it?  [At  the  right.] 
Now?  [We  can't  see  it  at  all.]  Later  it  will  be  seen  appearing  at  the  left, — ap- 
proaching the  front, — again  at  the  right,  etc.  I  should  like  to  make  the  prime 
meridian  on  our  blackboard  map  with  colored  crayon,  as  we  did  the  equator. 
Which  meridian  shall  I  call  prime?  Could  it  be  any  one  on  my  map?  Why? 
Let  us  locate  the  prime  meridian  on  our  map,  as  the  one  on  the  globe  looks  to 
Walter,  as  he  is  now  sitting.  Walter  may  show  us."  (In  succeeding  lessons 
change  the  location  of  the  prime  meridian  on  the  map,  so  that  children  will  learn 
that  it  is  not  relatively  fixed,  as  is  the  equator.) 

"What  number  did  we  give  to  the  equator  when  we  talked  about  latitude? 
We  shall  give  our  prime  meridian  the  same  number.  All  of  the  meridians  at  the 
right  of  the  prime  meridian  are  said  to  be  east,  and  all  at  the  left,  west."  (Lead 
children  to  number  the  meridians,  and  to  see  that  only  half  the  globe  can  be  seen 
at  once,  so  that  we  must  make  two  maps  to  show  the  entire  surface.  (Figures 
3  and  4.)     The  outer  edges  coincide,  so  are  numbered  the  same.) 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  4 


Application  of  new  work.— About  the  same  plan  as  with  parallels  may  be 
used,  except  that  instead  of  drawing  the  pointer  along  an  entire  line  to  show  a 
person's  home,  only  one  spot  can  be  pointed  out.  Begin  with  "even"  locations 
such  as  70  degrees  north  and  20  degrees  east.  Later  introduce  the  intermediate 
steps;  for  example,  55  degrees  south  and  20  degrees  west;  then  35  degrees  north 
and  75  degrees  west;  then  61  degrees  north  and  37  degrees  east,  etc.  Use  term 
longitude,  as  teacher  did  latitude,  so  frequently  that  children  learn  its  meaning  by 


276  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

association.  When  children  are  fairly  familiar  with  use  of  map,  give  such  loca- 
tions as  90  degrees  north,  25  degrees  east;  0  degrees  south,  etc. 

Each  child  should,  at  his  seat,  draw  a  map  and  correctly  number  the  lines. 
Then  the  teacher  may  place  upon  the  board  ten  statements  of  locations,  using 
both  latitude  and  longitude.  Children  will  place  corresponding  letters  or  fig- 
ures at  proper  points  on  the  map.  Children  may  do  this  as  seat-work,  or  as  a 
contest  of  speed,  in  class. 

Another  plan  is  to  give  children  the  names  of  from  ten  to  twenty  well-known 
cities,  mountains,  etc.,  and  let  them  find  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  each. 
Later  these  could  be  marked  upon  the  children's  own  maps.  Or,  reverse  this, 
the  teacher  indicating  the  latitude  and  longitude  where  famous  points  of  interest 
may  be  found  and  children  find  and  name  the  city,  lake,  or  river  mouth. 

For  review  the  children  may  be  asked  questions  to  emphasize  the  differences 
and  similarities  found  in: 

1.  Parallels  and  meridians. 

a.  Direction  of,  on  globe. 

Parallels  are  drawn  east  and  west. 
Meridians  are  drawn  north  and  south. 

b.  Relative  position. 

Parallels  are  parallel. 
Meridians  meet  at  poles. 

c.  How  numbered. 

2.  Methods  of  locating  places. 

a.  Compare  locating  places  in  the  country  with  locating  places  on 

earth's  surface  by  means  of  "landmarks." 

b.  Compare  locating  city  houses  by  street  and  number  with  locat- 

ing places  on  earth's  surface  by  means  of  parallels  and  meri- 
dians. 

Children  should  conclude  that  parallels  and  meridians  are  necessary  for 
accurate  location  of  places  on  the  globe;  should  know  how  they  are  drawn;  and 
should  know  how  to  use  them.  If  old  enough  to  understand  it,  children  should 
learn  about  the  dropping  or  adding  of  a  day,  at  the  180th  meridian,  and  about 
change  of  time  when  traveling  east  or  west.  The  topic  of  "longitude  and  time" 
formerly  taught  in  arithmetic,  is  more  sensibly  taught  here. 

Thereafter,  pupils  should  use  latitude  and  longitude  in  locating  places  talked 
of,  and  will  necessarily  use  latitude  in  discussing  comparative  climates  of  differ- 
ent countries. 

B.— A  LESSON  ON  THE  GREAT  BASIN. 

(By  Miss  Mabel  Marvin,  Winona.) 

Aim. — What  is  man's  problem  in  relation  to  arid  regions  in  general  and  to 
The  Great  Basin  in  particular? 

Rcviciv. —  1.  "Turn  to  the  map  on  the  wall.  Find  the  coast  region.  The 
Sierra  Nevada  mountains.  Can  you  anywhere  find  anything  about  the  height 
of  these  mountains?  [Children  use  the  'key'  and  find  that  the  mountains  are 
from  1000  to  (JOOO  feet  high.]     Just  what  does  this  mean?"     (Children  explain.) 

2.  "The  winds  which  blow  from  the  west,  pass  over  what  water?  Do  they 
bring  much  or  little  moisture?  Why?"  (Each  child  gave  a  judgment,  one  after 
the  other;  then,  later,  gave  reasons  for  that  judgment.) 


Help's  in  Geography. — The  Great  Basin.  277 

3.  "Recall  the  experiment  we  made  with  the  slates  and  our  teakettle  of  boil- 
ing water.  What  happened?"  (Children  told  how  the  cold  slate  caused  rain, 
and  how  the  hot  slate  dried  up  the  steam  so  that  it  disappeared.) 

4.  "When  the  westerly  winds,  laden  with  moisture,  reach  the  Sierra  Nevada 
mountains  (1000  to  6000  feet  high),  what  probably  happens?  [Rain.]  Which 
slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  gets  the  more  rain?     [West.]     Why?" 

5.  "Is  your  inference  correct — does  it  have  much  rain?  How  can  you  prove 
it?"  (Oregon  and  Washington,  already  studied,  are  referred  to  by  pupils  as 
having  much  rain.) 

Development. — 1.  "Turn  to  p.  —  of  your  texts.  Put  your  fingers  on  the 
Sierra  Nevada  mountains.  On  the  Rocky  mountains.  Note  the  region  between 
these  ranges  and  follow  it  north  to  the  south  branch  of  the  Columbia  river.  Can 
you  find  that  river?  Then  look  towards  the  south  until  you  find  the  Colorado 
river.  Show  the  whole  region.  What  bounds  it  on  the  east?  On  the  west?  On 
the  north?     On  the  south?     Point  it  out  on  the  wall-map." 

2.  "This  region  is  called  The  Great  Basin.  [Teacher  writes  name  on  the 
blackboard.]  Why  do  you  think  it  is  called  that?  [Children  answered  freely, 
It's  a  big  valley.  There  are  a  lot  of  lakes  in  it.  It's  like  a  basin,  high  on  the 
sides.  There  are  lots  of  rivers  and  valleys  in  it.]  What  do  you  notice  about 
the  lakes  and  rivers?  Find  a  river.  Trace  it  to  its  mouth.  Find  another. 
Trace  it.  [Children  all  work,  as  teacher  oversees  and  helps  wherever  necessary.] 
Where  do  all  the  rivers  flow?  [Into  lakes.  Not  one  flows  into  the  ocean.]  What 
must  be  true  of  the  north  and  south  rims  of  this  basin?"  (High,  too,  just  as  the 
east  and  west  rims  are,  but  not  so  high  as  they  are.) 

3.  "Why  is  it  called  The  Great  Basin?  [It  is  so  large.]  Can  you  find  any- 
thing anywhere  that  would  tell  you  the  dimensions?"  (Children  supplement 
text  by  using  scale,  and  find  that  the  basin  is  about  500  miles  long.  This  dis- 
tance is  then  compared  with  known  distances — 100  miles  from  Winona  to  St. 
Paul,  for  example.) 

4.  "If  Atlantic  winds,  laden  with  moisture,  should  come  as  far  west  as  The 
Great  Basin,  what  would  happen  to  them?  [They  would  drop  their  moisture  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Rockies.]  Then  what  would  be  true  of  rain  in  The  Great 
Basin?  [Little  or  none  would  reach  it.]  Suppose  a  few  clouds  got  past  the 
Sierras  or  the  Rockies,  what  would  happen  to  them?  Compare  the  situation 
with  our  hot-slate  experiment."  (The  clouds  would  disappear.  No  rain  would  fall.) 

5.  "What  does  your  map  tell  you  of  the  surface?  Look  at  these  pictures  of 
the  region."  (The  teacher  supplemented  these  by  descriptions  of  the  canyon- 
cut  surface,  of  cacti,  and  of  scenery  in  general,  making  very  vivid  pictures  for  the 
pupils  to  imagine.) 

6.  "What  may  we  expect  this  region  to  produce?  [Little  vegetation.]  Yes. 
For  a  long  time  it  was  called  the  Great  American  Desert.  What  relation  does  it 
bear  to  the  East,  and  California?  [Right  between.  On  the  road  needing  to  be 
traveled.]  Then  what  would  naturally  be  built?  [A  railroad.]  How  many 
stations  would  there  be?  Why  few?  How  many  station-agents?  How  many 
trains  a  day?  What  would  these  agents  do  to  use  the  time?  [Ride  horseback  and 
explore.]  As  they  explored,  they  discovered  rich  veins  of  minerals.  What  min- 
erals were  found?  Use  your  books  if  you  don't  know.  As  soon  as  people  out- 
side the  Basin  heard  of  its  mineral  wealth,  what  happened?"  (Migration  into 
The  Great  Basin.) 

7.  "What  occupations  would  naturally  develop?  [Mining  in  great  quantity. 
Some  farming  to  supply  daily  needs.]     Why  not  more  farming?     [So  little  rain.] 


278  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

Look  at  the  Great  Salt  Lake  region.  What  mineral  is  important  there?"  (By- 
pictures  and  description,  the  teacher  gave  pupils  vivid  impressions  of  this  region.) 
8.  "Let  us  make  a  comparison,  step  by  step,  of  this  region  and  the  Coast 
Region  which  you  have  studied  before."  With  a  few  suggestions  and  necessary 
questions  from  the  teacher,  the  pupils  put  on  the  blackboard  the  following  table 
of  comparisons: 

Coast  Region  Great  Basin 

Moisture  Plenty  Scanty 

Winds  Moist  Dry 

Soil  Fertile  Arid  I  l°il  *°°* 

{  but  too  dry. 

Vegetation  Abundant  Scanty 

Products  Agricultural  products,  gold    Minerals 

Occupations  Fruit  growing  Mining 

Assignment  {oral). — "Could  people  of  The  Great  Basin  ever  have  farming? 

[Yes,  if  they  irrigate.]     Are  they  doing  so?     Has  the  government  helped  any? 

How  much?     What  is  your  opinion  about  this  region's  being  a  good  home  for 

people?    What  would  you  expect  regarding  cities?    Many?    Few?    Large  or  not? 

Then  you  will  have  a  good  many  things  to  think  about  for  tomorrow,  won't 

you?     I  shall  be  glad  to  see  who  has  found  out  about  them  all." 

(The  next  lesson  clinched  all  done  in  this  and  added  the  suggested  points.) 

C— A  LESSON  ON  THE  DRAINAGE  OF  MINNESOTA. 

(By  Miss  Harriet  Carter,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.) 

Problem. — "How  is  the  drainage  of  Minnesota  related  to  the  drainage  of  the 
United  States  and  of  North  America?" 

Review. — "In  what  physical  division  of  North  America  is  Minnesota?  [The 
Great  Central  Plain.]  How  far  west  does  this  Great  Central  Plain  extend? 
[Child  called  on  each  time,  steps  to  the  map  and  points  as  he  talks.]  How  far 
north?  East?  South?  [To  Gulf  Coastal  Plain.]  Within  the  United  States, 
Minnesota  has  what  position  in  this  great  central  plain?  [North  central.]  In 
all  of  North  America,  Minnesota  has  what  location  in  reference  to  the  Great 
Central  Plain?"     [Middle.] 

Development. — "Does  Minnesota's  being  in  the  'middle,'  or  center,  affect  its 
drainage?     Much  or  little?     Let  us  see. 

1.  "The  greater  part  of  the  drainage  of  this  Great  Central  Plain,  within  the 
United  States,  is  through  what?  [The  Mississippi  river.]  What  part  of  Minne- 
sota is  drained  by  the  Mississippi  river?  Show  on  the  map.  [A  little  more  than 
one-half  the  state.] 

2.  "Sketch  outline  maps  of  Minnesota.  [Two  boys  named  to  do  this.]  Now 
add  the  rivers  which  flow  into  the  Mississippi,  even  if  the}'  How  through  some 
other  state  to  reach  the  Mississippi.  Where  do  the  streams  about  Winona  flow? 
Think  of  some  creeks  you  know  near  Winona.  In  the  spring,  what  is  true  of 
the  ravine  across  the  lake?  [Water  rushes  down  in  torrents.]  Into  what  does 
it  flow?  [The  lake.]  Into  what  does  the  lake  drain?  Then  it  all  really  does 
drain  into ?     [The  Mississippi.] 

3.  "In  what  direction  does  the  water  that  falls  on  the  northern  part  of  Min- 
nesota drain?     Into  what?     [Lake  Winnipeg.] 

4.  "What  is  the  boundary  between  waters  called?  [A  divide].  Can  you 
show  me  where  the  divide  must  be  to  separate  these  two  systems  of  drainage? 


Devices. — Relation  to  Methods  and  Principles.       279 

Add  the  northern  rivers  to  the  two  maps.     [Other  pupils  called  on  to  do  this.] 
Indicate  the  divide  on  the  map.     [Child  does.] 

5.  "But  there  is  still  another  part  of  Minnesota  at  which  we  haven't  looked. 
Which  part?  Point  to  it.  Where  do  the  waters  of  this  northeast  corner  drain? 
[Some  to  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  and  from  that  to  Lake  Winnipeg.  Some  to 
Lake  Superior.] 

6.  "Then  we  need  another  divide.     Can  you  put  it  into  our  sketches?" 

7.  Teacher  helps  pupils  to  summarize  work  to  this  point:  Minnesota  lies  in 
the  center  of  the  Great  Central  Plain,  and  as  that  is  drained  by  three  main  streams 
(the  Mississippi,  the  Great  Lakes,  and  Hudson  Bay),  we  naturally  find  in  Minne- 
sota the  beginnings  of  all  three  systems  of  drainage.  These  are  separated  by  the 
two  main  divides  which  were  drawn,  and  one  minor  one. 

Assignment. — "Are  these  divides  high?  How  can  you  find  out?  Do  so  for 
tomorrow.  What  bearing  will  the  drainage  of  Minnesota  have  on  the  State's 
industries?     On  its  commerce?     Tomorrow  we  shall  take  these  topics. 

VII.— DEVICES  AND  THEIR  PLACE  IN  TEACHING. 
A.— THEIR  RELATION  TO  METHODS  AND   PRINCIPLES. 

A  principle  is  something  so  deep  and  so  fundamental  as  to  be  most  difficult 
of  definition.  Like  an  axiom,  it  is  indisputable;  yet,  unlike  an  axiom,  it  lies  so 
deep  as  often  to  be  unrecognized  as  the  propelling  motive  to  some  action. 

As  soon,  however,  as  the  principle  makes  itself  felt,  the  individual,  whether 
conscious  or  not  of  the  fundamental  cause,  seeks  some  method  of  expressing  the 
principle.  Necessity  produces  one  sort  of  method  or  invention.  The  instinct  of 
curiosity  which  leads  to  experimentation  and  improvement  on  invention  pro- 
duces a  second  sort  of  method;  the  spirit  of  emulation,  or  of  ambition  to  excel, 
may  cause  the  development  of  a  highly  mechanical  or  scientific  method;  while 
parent  love,  sympathy,  friendship,  and  faith  in  our  fellows,  will  call  out  still 
different  methods  of  carrying  out  a  principle.  An  individual's  instinctive  love 
of  variety  causes  him,  in  working  out  a  method,  to  make  a  number  of  minor 
changes — devices  which  catch  the  attention  of  an  observer,  and  often  please  or 
interest  him. 

Illustrations. — The  fundamental  principles  of  good  dressing  are  (1)  protection 
of  the  body,  and  (2)  decoration.  The  methods  of  dressing  vary  for  men  and 
women,  for  Eskimos  and  Chicagoans,  for  the  leisure  class  and  for  the  working 
woman.  And  in  any  single  narrow  field,  numerous  devices  appear,  such  as  the 
military  collar,  the  streaming  tippet  ends,  the  plain  or  the  betrimmed  sleeve, 
the  short  or  long  skirt,  the  bright  or  the  sombre  bodice,  the  "cut-a-way"  or  the 
"frock"  coat. 

Food  is  cooked  because  of  the  fundamental  need  of  food's  being  palatable  and 
digestible.  Potatoes  may  be  boiled,  baked,  scalloped,  mashed,  creamed,  made 
into  soup,  or  prepared  to  be  both  palatable  and  digestible  by  a  dozen  different 
methods.  Scalloped  potatoes,  for  example,  may  be  served  in  individual  ramikins 
or  in  one  large  casserole;  may  be  garnished  with  parsley  or  with  cheese;  or  may 
be  made  attractive  by  any  other  device  the  chef  may  invent. 

The  principle  which  underlies  one's  learning  to  subtract  is  economy  of  time 
and  energy  when  finding  the  differences  between  numbers  used  in  daily  business. 
There  are  several  methods  of  subtracting:  right  to  left,  left  to  right,  Austrian, 
"borrowing,"  etc.  A  teacher  may  employ  any  one  of  several  devices  for  helping 
her  pupils  learn  any  one  of  the  methods:  She  may  use  toothpicks  for  presentation 


280  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

of  the  plan  and  for  use  in  doubt;  she  may  have  competitive  drills  for  fixing  sub- 
tractive  relations;  she  may  use  blackboard  or  paper  for  solving  the  examples; 
and  she  may  use  the  thermometer,  or  walking  to  the  north  or  south  of  a  given 
spot  on  the  floor,  or  making  spaces  on  the  blackboard,  to  teach  subtraction  of 
positive  and  negative  quantities. 

These  illustrations,  better  than  definitions,  serve  to  show  the  interrelation 
of  principle,  method,  and  device,  and  to  point  to  the  relative  importance  of  each. 
That  devices  have  a  worthy  place,  none  can  deny.  But  that  they  should  not 
outweigh  method  or  principle  is  plain.  Whether  a  woman  wears  a  flower  or  a 
ribbon  bow  on  her  hat  is  of  less  importance  than  that  she  select  a  hat  that  is  be- 
coming and  suitable;  but  still  more  important  than  the  becomingness,  is  the  need 
of  having  some  sort  of  head  covering,  especially  in  cold  weather.  The  momentous 
debates  over  methods  and  devices  of  teaching  are  parallel  to  the  seasonal  discus- 
sions over  styles  in  dress.  Both  become  matters  of  no  consequence  in  the  face 
of  same  really  big  principle  of  life.  The  mother  whose  child  is  ill  thinks  not  for 
a  moment  of  whether  the  dress  she  has  on  is  one  for  morning  or  afternoon;  she 
cares  only  to  be  dressed  quickly  that  she  may  wait  upon  her  child.  The  teacher 
who  would  build  a  character  is  not  primarily  concerned  with  whether  the  child 
knows  a  particular  multiplication  table,  but  is  concerned  over  the  chance  there 
is  in  the  learning  of  the  table  for  the  pupil  to  gain  greater  self-confidence,  and 
strength  to  persist  even  unto  victory.  That  these  lessons  can  be  learned  from  the 
building  of  a  rabbit-hutch  or  the  entire  care  of  a  horse  or  a  cow,  just  as  well  as 
from  the  multiplication  tables,  every  experienced  teacher  knows.  And  when 
those  lessons  are  once  learned  they  can  be  applied  to  the  care  of  the  horse  or  to 
the  conquering  of  the  tables,  whichever  one  lost  out  in  the  original  teaching. 

All  three — devices,  methods,  principles — are  constantly  needed  in  life,  but 
their  proper  interrelations  must  be  kept.  Rings,  and  beads,  and  ribbons,  are 
proper  devices  of  dress;  but  a  woman  who  wears  too  many  strings  of  beads,  fly- 
ing ribbons,  cords  and  tassels,  and  too  much  jewelry,  has  lost  the  sense  of  rela- 
tive values  and  has  violated  a  principle  of  good  dressing.  So  teachers  who  be- 
come carried  away  by  devices  in  teaching  lose  their  perspective  and  forget  prin- 
ciples: They  teach  the  device,  not  the  child. 

The  young  girl  who  is  just  learning  to  cook  spends  undue  time  on  the  devices 
of  garnishing  or  serving,  and,  if  left  alone,  is  apt  not  to  have  the  meal  on  time, 
or  the  food  hot;  in  the  same  way,  the  inexperienced  teacher  is  likely  to  overdo  de- 
vice, and,  when  he  visits  a  colleague,  sees  and  tries  to  imitate  the  devices  ob- 
served. Occasionally  a  young  teacher  visits  one  of  experience  and  returns  with 
"nothing  seen"  because  no  devices  showed.  One  test  of  a  teacher's  growing 
power  is  the  gradual  discontinuance  of  much  device.  The  greatest  teachers  of 
the  world  arc  bound  down  to  no  special  method,  to  no  particular  equipment,  to 
no  set  text-books.  Like  Socrates,  Pestalozzi,  and  others  less  known  to  fame, 
they  teach  anywhere  with  any  material.  If  "college  education"  can  be  defined 
as  "a  log  with  Mark  Hopkins  on  one  end  and  a  pupil  on  the  other,"  what  ought 
to  be  the  definition  of  an  elementary  school  education? 

B—  A  FEW  STAPLE  DEVICES,  WITH  RULES  FOR  THEIR 
USE. 

Devices  are  more  needed  in  drill  lessons  than  in  either  development  or  ap- 
preciation lessons.  This  is  because  the  tendency  in  drill  lessons  is  to  emphasize 
the  form  rather  than  the  content.     Association  of  meaning  and  form  will  obviate 


A  Few  Staple  Devices.  281 

the  necessity  for  any  considerable  number  of  devices.  Nevertheless,  some 
are  always  necessary.     (See  p.  231.) 

Four  Rules. — (1)  Devices  should  be  easily  understood  when  quickly  explained. 
For  example,  a  teacher  once  worked  out  an  elaborate  scheme  of  playing  croquet, 
putting  a  word  at  each  arch,  and  a  harder  word  at  each  stake.  She  used 
the  device  with  second-grade  pupils  who  did  not  know  how  to  play  croquet. 
As  a  consequence,  the  entire  time  was  spent  in  teaching  pupils  how  to  play  the 
game  rather  than  in  drilling  on  words.  (2)  They  should  jit  the  lesson  in  hand, 
not  evidently  be  "dragged  in."  At  another  time,  the  same  teacher  had  a  class 
reading  the  story  of  "The  Clever  Starling,"  (the  talking  bird  which  was  caught 
in  a  net  with  other  birds.)  She  wrote  on  the  blackboard  a  dozen  words  that  might 
give  trouble  in  the  oral  reading,  calling  for  the  meaning  of  each  as  she  wrote  it. 
Then  she  said,  "Let  us  play  these  are  birds,  caught  in  this  net  (she  quickly  drew 
a  chalk  net  over  the  words),  and  you  may  be  the  fowler  who  takes  them  out,  one 
at  a  time.  He  does  not  want  to  lose  any  so  all  must  be  pronounced."  (3)  If 
devices  can't  fit  the  immediate  lesson,  they  should  chime  with  children's  inter- 
ests. For  example,  if  the  circus  has  just  been  in  town  and  pupils  are  engrossed 
in  its  interesting  details,  the  teacher  may  "play"  that  the  desired  number  com- 
binations are  animals  in  cage's,  and  pupils  must  correctly  name  the  animals  pointed 
to,  saying  "twelve"  if  3  X  4  or  6  X  2  is  pointed  to;  or  8,  if  5  4-  3  is  indicated. 
A  few  quickly  drawn  vertical  lines  for  "bars"  are  sufficient  to  create  the  atmos- 
phere; finished  drawings  are  here  out  of  place.  Again,  near  Christmas  time,  the 
number  combinations,  phonic  stems,  or  words  needed,  can  be  written  upon 
the  branches  of  a  Christmas-tree.  (4)  Devices  must  not  be  worn  threadbare,  just 
because  they  interest  the  pupils  at  first,  or  because  the  teacher  does  not  want  to 
bother  to  find  new  ones.  Very  slight  changes  are  sometimes  sufficient.  If  the 
ladder  device  is  used  (and  it  is  always  good),  the  ladder  may  be  drawn  on  the 
blackboard,  on  a  chart,  or  on  the  floor.  Words,  cities,  number  combinations, 
phonic  elements,  or  whatever  drill  is  being  used,  may  be  written  on  the  rounds 
of  the  ladder,  the  child  being  able  to  climb  the  ladder  successfully  if  he  has  firmly 
planted  a  foot  on  each  round  by  answering  correctly.  If  the  ladder  is  on  the 
floor,  the  words  may  be  on  the  sides  of  the  ladder,  and  the  child  try  to  walk  on 
one  side  without  falling  off.  Later  the  ladder  may  lead  to  the  top  of  a  wall;  or 
to  an  apple-tree  on  which  hang  apples  (harder  words),  or  to  a  Christmas  tree 
loaded  with  presents. 

The  device  of  putting  the  same  kind  of  seat-work  into  a  fresh  cover  such  as 
a  colored  leaf,  or  a  sunbonnet  (cut  from  wall  paper),  or  a  large  star,  makes  the 
work  seem  wholly  new  to  children.  A  third  grade  was  once  seen  to  glow  with 
pleasure  over  some  familiar  seat-work  passed,  for  a  change,  in  an  attractive 
basket  on  whose  handle  a  big  bow  of  red  ribbon  had  been  tied.  Not  long  since 
a  young  rural  teacher  was  observed  while  she  drilled  third-grade  pupils  on  the 
table  of  threes.  All  she  did  was  to  ask  one  pupil  after  the  other  to  say  the  table 
in  order,  beginning  with  1X3.  There  was  no  life  to  the  lesson,  nor  was  this  any 
proof  that  pupils  knew  6  X  3  or  8  X  3  whenever  seen.  She  needed  a  dozen 
"snappy"  devices,  such  as  flashing  cards,  calling  the  combinations  in  irregular 
order,  having  a  "match,"  or  a  "race,"  or  doing  all  possible  in  a  given  number  of 
minutes.     Variety  and  snap  are  essential  factors  in  drills. 

A  few  other  staple  devices. — 1.  The  "Is  it ?"  game.     The  teacher  writes 

number  combinations  on  the  board  and  then  says,  for  example,  "I'm  thinking 
of  a  certain  product  (or  sum)."  A  child  points  to  3  X  4  and  says,  "Is  it  12?" 
The  teacher  says,  "It  is  not  12."     Child  points  to  7  X  2  and  says,  "Is  it  14?", 


282  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

continuing  until  he  guesses  the  correct  product,  or  errs  in  naming  the  product  of 
two  factors  to  which  he  points.  This  can  be  varied  in  dozens  of  ways,  to  use 
with  word  and  other  drills  as  well  as  with  arithmetic  facts. 

2.  Keeping  record  of  pupils'  weekly  abilities,  by  either  the  number  done  cor- 
rectly in  a  given  time,  or  the  time  taken  to  do  a  specified  number  of  examples, 
or  words. 

3.  "Racing"  is  always  good.  Two  individuals  or  two  groups  may  race.  Two 
illustrations  are  given.  (1)  A  large  outline  map  of  some  country  (say  the  U.  S.) 
is  on  the  blackboard  or  a  sheet  of  tagboard.  The  children  have  learned  some  of 
the  states,  or  the  largest  rivers  or  cities,  or  the  locations  of  certain  industries. 
The  teacher  sends  two  pupils,  each  with  a  pointer,  to  the  map,  and  rapidly  names 
five  cities,  for  example.  The  child  who  first  touches  the  correct  spot  for  the 
location  of  at  least  three  out  of  five  cities  named,  wins  for  his  side.  (2)  Two 
similar  columns  of  names  of  states,  cities,  rivers,  or  of  industries,  may  be  on  the 
board,  but  in  different  order.  Let  us  take  the  last  named.  The  two  children 
are  ready.  The  teacher  says,  "Done  along  the  Columbia  river,"  "Done  in  the 
southern  states,"  "The  cause  of  California's  being  settled,"  "Most  famous  in 
Colorado,"  or  "Illinois  and  Iowa  noted  for."  Each  pupil  points  to  the  correct 
industry  in  his  column,  and,  as  before,  the  one  who  most  often  finds  the  answer 
first  wins. 

4.  Take  some  maps  from  discarded  geographies,  trace  the  outlines  with  hec- 
tograph ink,  and  print  a  large  number.  Or  save  bits  of  maps,  without  names, 
from  many  sources.  Cut  a  map  into  sections,  so  that  each  piece  has  some  dis- 
tinguishing feature.  Mount  each  piece  on  a  square  of  stiff  paper.  (Children 
like  to  prepare  the  cards  themselves.)  The  teacher  then  "flashes"  one  card 
after  the  other  and  pupils  name  the  part  of  the  map  seen.  Or  they  may  all  write  , 
the  answers,  checking  their  work  as  the  teacher  slowly  reshows  the  cards,  approv- 
ing the  correct  names  as  one  pupil  after  another  reads  his  answer:  "The  southern 
part  of  Europe,"  "Florida,"  "Alaska,"  and  "The  eastern  coast  of  Asia,"  are 
typical  answers. 

5.  A  "snow  storm"  which  covers  the  words  as  fast  as  they  are  correctly  pro- 
nounced, makes  pupils  happy  indoors  even  though  the  first  snow  of  the  season 
tempts  them  to  dream  of  school-close. 

6.  Rapidly  rescuing  people  or  furniture  (words  or  number  combinations) 
from  a  burning  house,  the  whole  made  dramatic  by  a  few  red  flames  seen  to  be 
bursting  from  the  roof,  is  great  fun. 

7.  "Cleaning  house"  (erasing  words  known  as  they  are  pronounced),  is  a  fine  de- 
vice for  the  very  end  of  the  drill,  since  the  board  is  thus  left  clean  for  the  next  class. 

8.  "Fox  and  Geese,"  makes  a  fine  game  for  securing  rapid  replies  (to  number 
combinations,  for  instance).  The  board  contains  many  expressed  operations. 
A  child  stands  and  says  6,  12,  21,  4,  18,  etc.  He  may  go  in  any  direction  he 
pleases  but  must  keep  in  line;  that  is,  he  can't  skip  all  over  the  board.  As  soon 
as  another  child  "locates  him,"  he  stands.  The  "goose"  stops;  the  "fox"  steps 
to  the  board,  pointing  to  the  combinations  and  naming  the  same  sums,  products, 
differences,  or  quotients,  as  the  "goose"  named  up  to  the  time  of  his  stopping. 
If  correct,  the  "fox"  becomes  the  next  "goose"  for  another  "fox"  to  catch. 

A  few  devices  for  helping  enunciation  follow: 

9.  Say  quickly  and  clearly, 

(a)  la,  IS,  li,  lo,  16b 

(b)  da,  dc,  dl,  do,  dob 

(c)  Repeat  (a)  giving  each  syllable  four  times,  thus — la,  la,  la,  la — le, 
le,  le,  le,  etc. 


Teaching  Children  to  Study. — Steps.  283 

(d)  Repeat  (b)  giving  each  syllable  as  often  as  its  place  number  indi- 
cates, thus — da;  de,  de;  di,  di,  di;  do,  do,  do,  do;  doo,  doo,  doo, 
doo,  doo. 

(e)  On  the  tip  of  the  tongue. 

(f)  Over  the  hills  the  farm  boy  goes. 

10.  Draw  on  the  blackboard  a  triangle.  Write  a,  e,  do,  at  the  three  points. 
Soured  each  slowly,  then  more  and  more  rapidly,  but  always  separately. 

Do  the  same  with  syllables,  ip,  ik,  it. 

12.  Drop  the  vowel  and  give  only  the  consonants  in  11. 

Texts,  school  magazines,  and  the  teacher's  ingenuity,  will  supply  many  other 
devices,  if  more  are  needed. 

VIIL— TEACHING   CHILDREN  TO  STUDY. 

(Including  Seat- Work    for    Lower  Grades.) 

Because  seat-work  has  grown  out  of  mere  "busy- work,"  teachers  have  only 
gradually  come  to  see  that  it  is  a  valuable  supplement  to  recitation-work  and 
hence  worth  their  careful  attention.  Since  pupils,  through  seat-work,  gradually 
acquire  the  art  of  studying,  it  should  be  prepared  with  as  much  care  as  is  given 
to  the  preparation  of  the  recitation.  The  program  must  be  planned  to  permit 
seat-  or  study-work  to  be  carefully  assigned,  and,  when  done,  briefly  inspected 
or  else  collected  for  correction.  Directions,  whether  oral  or  written,  should  be 
simple,  definite,  clear,  and  precise,  and  capable  of  being  executed  as  well  as  of 
being  remembered. 

The  teacher  should  plan  for  a  minimum  amount  of  work  for  all,  and  add  ex- 
tras for  children  who  are  able  to  do  more.  For  example,  in  assigning  arithmetic 
problems,  the  teacher  names  a  definite  number  for  all  to  do  and  then  suggests 
that  perhaps  some  can  do  in  addition  a  few  named  examples  which  are  "hard." 
The  tone  implies  that  the  extras  are  possible  if  only  pupils  are  ambitious.  Again, 
a  history  teacher  was  once  heard  to  make  this  assignment:  "We  have  all  been 
studying  the  revolutionary  period  for  some  time  now;  you  know  characters  on 
both  the  American  and  the  English  side;  for  tomorrow  you  may  choose  any 
character,  man  or  woman,  on  either  side,  and  plan  to  tell  as  many  things  about 
yourself  as  possible  so  that  the  rest  of  us  can  guess  who  you  are."  Then,  slyly, 
''Of  course  the  more  books  you  read  the  harder  you'll  be  to  guess.  You  are  wel- 
come to  any  books  on  my  desk,  and  most  of  you  know  how  to  use  the  library." 
The  reader  may  well  believe  that  the  more  capable  and  more  ambitious  pupils 
were  kept  just  as  persistently  busy  as  those  who  had  to  give  all  their  time  and 
effort  to  meeting  the  minimum  requirement. 

A.— STEPS  IN  STUDYING. 

Of  the  steps  in  the  process  of  studying  there  are  many  organizations,  and 
each  teacher  must  finally  make  his  own,  first,  to  fit  all  study;  and,  second,  to  fit 
his  particular  grade.  As  a  starting  point,  the  following  five  steps  are  suggested, 
each  to  be  briefly  discussed  later:  (1)  Recognizing  or  setting  the  problem;  (2) 
planning  the  solution;  (3)  solving  the  problem;  (4)  checking  the  result;  and  (5) 
applying  the  newly-found  knowledge  to  other  situations.  In  general,  steps  (1) 
and  (3)  are  the  ones  to  be  emphasized  in  primary  grades,  steps  (2)  and  (4)  the 
new  steps  to  work  on  in  intermediate  grades,  while  in  grammar  grades,  step  (5) 
may  be  consciously  added  to  the  other  four. 


284  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

1.  Before  any  real  work  can  be  done  the  performer  must  know  towards  what 
he  is  driving;  or,  in  other  words,  must  have  a  more  or  less  specific  aim,  must  see 
that  there  is  a  problem  before  him,  must  feel  the  need  of  overcoming  some  ob- 
stacle. Life  in  the  form  of  our  daily  work,  our  fellow  citizens,  our  superior 
officers  (of  children,  this  means  t'eachers),  or,  perhaps,  our  social  duties,  usually 
sets  the  problems  for  us,  and  we  only  need  to  have  our  eyes  open  to  sense  the 
problems.  Some  people  live  with  broken  windows,  falling  fences,  doors  hanging 
by  one  hinge,  or  other  forms  of  disorderliness  without  ever  recognizing  them  as 
problems,;  People  of  opposite  temperament  would  recognize  these  problems  in- 
stantly, and,  just  as  promptly,  begin  to  solve  them.  From  first  grade  up,  pupils 
must  be  helped  to  see  their  problems,  only  gradually  learning  to  do  that  more- 
difficult  task,  set  their  own  problems;  that  is,  not  wait  to  be  told  what  to  do> 
but  to  "carry  the  message  to  Garcia"  without  need  of  oversight. 

2.  The  second  step  is  to  plan  how  to  solve  the  problem,  to  select  the  proper 
materials  or  tools  and  the  best  method  of  procedure  to  employ.  This  demands 
judgment  of  things,  of  worths,  and  of  action.  It  demands  memory,  imagination, 
and  organization.  Thought  must  be  supplemented  by  more  thinking,  by  read- 
ing, or  by  asking  other  people's  opinions. 

3.  After  the  solution  has  been  planned,  the  third  step,  doing  the  task,  must 
be  taken.  Many  find  this  the  hardest  step  of  all,  for  the  actual  doing  of  a  planned 
task  almost  always  involves  drudgery,  monotonous  repetition,  or  mechanical 
detail.  Illustrations  as  in  getting  a  meal,  in  making  a  dress,  in  finding  how  many 
seconds  old  I  am,  etc.,  are  very  numerous.  The  planning  is  dramatic;  the  exe- 
cution, apt  to  be  tedious.  It  is,  therefore,  a  big  problem  of  our  schools  to  teach 
the  power  of  perseverance,  persistence,  or  stick-to-it-till-done  attitude  to  pupils. 
It  is  here  that  teachers  and  parents  need  devices  for  holding  children  to  their 
tasks  without  taking  from  them  the  real  joy  of  having  conquered  in  spite  of 
weariness  or  lack  of  interest.  From  first  grade  on,  pupils  must  be  held  to  fin- 
ishing work  that  is  begun,  though,  of  course,  work  given  should  fit  the  pupils' 
ability  to  do,  and  it  is  therefore  quite  essential  that  the  teacher  have  a  minimum 
standard  which  can  be  reached  by  even  the  poorest  child  who  yet  is  "up  to  grade," 
with  just  enough  extra  work  planned  to  challenge  the  effort  of  the  better  pupils. 
If  pupils  have  been  asked  to  name  five  cities  which  manufacture  cloth  they  must 
be  held  to  naming  the  full  five.  If  the  teacher  has  suggested  that  perhaps  some 
pupils  can  name  five  cities  which  manufacture  cotton  cloth  and  five  which  manu- 
facture woolen  cloth,  (or  silk,  or  velvet,  or  linen,  as  the  case  may  be,)  the  pupils 
who  attempt  this  task  should  be  required  to  complete  it.  To  attempt  more  than 
is  required  should  not  be  counted  so  satisfactory  as  to  do  what  is  required  perfectly. 

4.  Having  solved  a  problem,  students  need  next  to  assure  themselves  that 
they  are  right.  From  having  their  work  approved  by  others  to  being  able  to 
check  it  themselves  is  a  long  journey,  but  is  a  journey  well  worth  conscious 
effort.  To  be  able  to  check  one's  own  work,  a  person  needs  (a)  to  keep  in  mind 
his  aim,  (b)  to  know  at  least  one  other  method  of  procedure,  (c)  to  have  a  stand- 
ard or  ideal  of  what  the  result  will  be,  and  (d)  be  willing  to  do  the  work  again, 
or  have  a  pride  in  wanting  to  be  certain  of  himself.  Care,  despatch,  and  accur- 
acy, are  traits  of  character  which  this  step  will  engender. 

5.  Having  checked  one's  self  so  that  he  feels  sure  of  his  knowledge,  his  sym- 
pathy, or  his  power  to  do,  an  individual  is  ready  for  the  last  step — using  his 
freshly  acquired  ability  or  information  under  new  circumstances.  As  he  does 
this  he  grows  in  alertness  to  see  a  problem  or  to  set  one,  in  executive  ability,  and 
in  general  efficiency.  He  becomes  an  expert  in  his  field.  With  advancing  years 
he  is  able  to  generalize  from  wide  experience  and  so  becomes  a  real  philosopher. 


Teaching  Children  to  Study. — Materials.  285 

Though  every  step  is  present  in  every  grade,  the  earlier  suggested  points  of 
emphasis  must  be  kept  in  mind. 

To  make  younger  pupils  see  their  problem,  (1)  the  seat-work  must  be  assigned 
to  meet  immediate  interests,  to  fit  directly  into  the  regular  daily  work  of  the 
schoolroom.  It  must  usually  fix,  by  practice  in  one  or  more  media,  the  new- 
experience  that  the  child  has  had.  For  example,  if  he  has  been  led  to  discover 
the  additive  combinations  in  five,  his  seat-work  should  clinch  the  knowledge  dis- 
covered by  building  five  with  stars,  pegs,  corn,  pictures  of  pets  or  toys,  etc.,  or 
by  using  the  number  symbols  to  fix  the  combinations.  It  may,  on  the  other 
hand,  occasionally  demand  effort  in  unfamiliar  fields  for  the  sake  of  exciting  the 
child's  curiosity,  or  of  preparing  him  to  appreciate  something  which  is  to  be  pre- 
sented later.  The  child  must  also  have  opportunities  (2)  to  do  the  same  kind 
of  work  often  enough  to  secure  control  of  the  mechanical  side  of  seat-work- 
That  is,  he  must  cut,  paste,  arrange  tablets  or  letters  without  spilling,  use  taste 
in  selecting  color  combinations  and  in  spacing  his  work,  copy  carefully,  or  do 
whatever  is  required  at  frequent  enough  intervals  to  insure  growth  in  neatness, 
accuracy,  speed,  or  arrangement  of  his  work. 

To  secure  perseverance  or  steady  application  to  a  task,  and  to  prevent  any 
tendency  towards  dawdling  or  idling,  the  study  or  seat-work  must  have  two 
seemingly  conflicting  qualities.  It  must,  first,  be  easy  enough  to  insure  its  ac- 
complishment, to  bring  to  the  child  the  feeling  of  success;  that  is,  it  must  be  se- 
lected to  fit  the  child's  ability  to  do.  Second,  it  must  be  hard  enough  to  chal- 
lenge the  child's  best  effort.  He  must  feel  that  it  is  worth  while  doing,  or  his 
ambition  atrophies. 

To  make  somewhat  older  pupils  add  to  these  first  and  third  steps,  the  second 
step  (organization),  and  the  fourth  (checking  results),  the  teacher  must  give 
for  seat-  or  study-work  tasks  which  demand  picking  out  essentials,  weighing 
values,  outlining,  paragraphing,  composing  problems  from  statistics,  doing  group- 
work  which  checks  individual  accuracy  and  methods,  and  tasks  that  continually 
function  in  a  larger  whole  and  hence  are  correctly  evaluated. 

To  help  eighth-grade  {and  older)  pupils  in  learning  to  use  their  knowledge, 
the  teacher  has  to  be  clever  in  devising  means  to  throw  children  upon  their  own 
initiative  in  solving  problems.  Children  need'  to  catch  a  teacher's  spirit  of  in- 
genuity and  expediency.  For  example,  if  a  schoolroom  shelf  has  to  be  put  up 
and  made  level  without  the  usual  spirit-level,  what  are  all  the  possible  means  to 
use?  These  are  some  of  the  answers  once  given:  Make  a  "level"  of  a  small 
bottle.  Use  a  tumbler  of  water,  pasting  a  strip  of  paper  on  the  glass.  Measure 
up  from  the  floor  in  two  places.  Move  the  shelf  until  a  marble  rolling  on  it  will 
prove  that  it  is  "level."  (This  last  suggestion  came  because  a  marble  was  the 
substitute  quickest  to  get,  after  some  fixtures  were  seen  to  prevent  equal  meas- 
urements.) 

B.— MATERIALS  AND  THEIR  USE. 

Since,  during  the  first  few  school  years,  the  teacher  sets  most  of  the  prob- 
lems and  supplies  most  of  the  materials  with  which  pupils  do  their  work,  primary 
teachers  are  usually  on  the  lookout  for  suggestions  as  to  materials  and  their  use. 
(Since  space  forbids  a  lengthy  list  only  a  few  are  given  below.) 

From  fourth  grade  on,  the  pupils'  text-books  and  reference  reading  supply 
most  of  the  material  used.  Map  making,  composition  work,  dictionary  work, 
problems  in  arithmetic,  geography,  and  history,  fill  the  bulk  of  the  study  time. 


286  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

A  book  like  McMurry's  "How  to  Study,"  is  a  valuable  aid  to  teachers  of  upper 
grades. 

Materials  Useful  or  Necessary  for  Seat-Work. 

1.  Papers  of  all  kinds — regular  school  papers,  colored  papers  for  weaving 
and  folding,  tissue  papers,  papers  for  cutting  and  for  card-board  modeling,  etc., 
down  to  plenty  of  clean  newspapers. 

2.  Pencils,  crayolas,  pens  and  ink,  and  brushes  and  paints,  with  their  neces- 
sary accessories. 

3.  Modeling-clay  or  some  substitute  such  as  soaked  and  mashed  paper,  or 
a  preparation  of  flour  or  starch  and  salt  (often  used  for  relief  maps). 

4.  Scissors. 

5.  Rulers. 

6.  Weaving  materials — yarn,  rags,  raffia,  carpet  warp,  etc. 

7.  Alphabets,  words,  and  sentences  in  boxes. 

8.  Numbers  and  number  signs  in  boxes. 

9.  Collected  materials — seeds,  moss,  pressed  leaves,  advertisements,  colored 
pictures,  seed  catalogues,  toys  for  models  in  handwork,  old  text-books  for  cutting 
up,  and  so  on  without  limit. 

10.  Sets  of  standard  tests.     (See  pp.  292-295.) 

11.  A  sign  printing-press  if  possible.  (Any  supply  house  sells  one  of  good 
size  for  about  $1.50.  A  small  one  for  some  kinds  of  work  can  be  bought  at  a 
five-and-ten-cent  store.) 

12.  Paste  which  can  be  made  inexpensively  by  teacher  or  pupils.  Several 
recipes  are  given,  since  children  sometimes  want  to  work  at  home  when  a  cooked 
paste  cannot  be  conveniently  made. 

No.  1. — Will  keep  for  weeks  if  sealed  in  ordinary  fruit-jars: 
1  pint  flour.  Put  on  to  boil  two  pints  of  water  and  the 

3  pints  water.  alum.     Mix  the  flour  with  the  remaining  pint 

1  tablespoonful  powdered  alum.       of  water,  as  mother  makes  a  gravy  "thicken- 

1  teaspoonful  oil  of  cloves.  ing,"  avoiding  lumps. 

When  the  water  (with  alum)  is  boiling,  slowly  add  the  "thickening,"  stirring 
constantly,  and  letting  the  whole  cook  until  clear  like  starch.  Add  oil  of  cloves 
and  seal. 

No.  2. — Similar  to  above,  but  different  in  proportions: 
\  pint  flour. 

2  pints  water.  Mix  as  above.     Cook   20   minutes  in 
1  tablespoonful  powdered  alum.               double  boiler.  Strain. 

10  drops  oil  of  cloves. 

No.  3. — Cooked  starch  (made  from  either  starch  or  flour)  left  by  the  laun- 
dress can  be  used  for  a  few  days.  When  much  paste  is  desired  for  immediate 
use,  laundry  starch  is  the  cheapest  kind  to  make. 

No.  4. — Scrape  or  grate  one  small  potato;  add  boiling  water  enough  to  make 
it  clear  like  starch  and  continue  to  cook  four  or  five  minutes. 

No.  5. — If  eggs  are  being  used  in  cooking,  the  small  amount  of  white  left  in 
the  broken  shells  will  supply  all  of  one's  day  paste  needed  by  children  at  home. 

No.  G. — Gum  tragacanth  dissolved  in  water  makes  a  good  paste  for  thin 
papers.     Oil  of  cloves  added  will  preserve  it. 

No.  7. — A  teaspoonful  of  ordinary  flour  mixed  with  cold  water  to  a  moder- 
ately thin  paste  will  serve  in  an  emergency. 

13.  A  hectograph  or  some  other  duplicating  contrivance. 


Teaching  Children  to  Study. — Seat- Work.  287 

A  Hectograph  Recipe. 
2  ounces  best  French  gelatine.  Put  all  into  double   boiler  and   cook 

1  ounce  sugar.  until     thoroughly     mixed,     stirring     as 

\  pint  water.  gently  as  possible. 

1  pound  glycerine. 

Strain  through  old  dampened  cheese-cloth  into  a  shallow  pan.  Set  in  a  level 
place,  covered  from  dust,  for  at  least  24  hours  before  using. 

Directions  for  Using  a  Hectograph. 
1.  With  hectograph  ink,  purchasable  at  any  stationer's,  write  or  draw  the 
work  to  be  duplicated.  2.  It  is  economy  of  time  and  of  gelatine  to  have  paper 
the  full  size  of  the  hectograph  and  always  to  print  a  filled  sheet.  Therefore  plan 
to  use  all  the  space  by  looking  days  ahead  to  some  desired  seat-work,  drawing, 
design,  or  language  anecdote,  with  which  to  complete  a  nearly  filled  page.  3. 
Moisten  the  gelatine-pad  very  slightly  by  wiping  its  surface  with  a  damp  (not 
wet)  sponge.  4.  Turn  written  matter  down  upon  the  pad  and  let  remain  from 
one  to  four  minutes,  according  to  number  of  copies  desired.  (It  wastes  gelatine 
to  let  original  sheet  remain  longer  than  necessary.)  5.  Mark  the  corners  of  the 
sheet  by  small  strips  of  paper  so  the  duplicate  copies  may  all  be  "square."  6. 
Remove  written  sheet,  and  rapidly  put  on  one  blank  sheet  after  another  until 
the  desired  number  of  copies  is  obtained.  One  can  print  30  to  40  copies  with 
ease,  and  as  many  as  125  copies  by  taking  care  (a)  to  write  heavily;  (b)  to  let 
original  copy  remain  on  the  pad  some  time;  (c)  to  work  rapidly  at  first  and 
more  and  more  slowly  later.  7.  When  through,  wash  pad  in  very  hot  water, 
removing  all  signs  of  ink.  Either  by  washing  or  by  remelting,  level  the  gelatine, 
and  set  away  covered.  A  pan  of  good  tin,  about  10  by  14  by  f  inches,  and  made, 
with  a  fitted  lid,  is  most  serviceable.     Such  a  pan  costs  about  fifty  cents. 

Care  and  Distribution  of  Materials. 

1.  Keep  all  materials  in  labeled  boxes  or  envelopes  so  children  can  readily 
find  them.  Replace  each  time  in  proper  place.  Clean  and  dust  often  but  keep 
neat  all  the  time.     The  best  lessons  in  neatness  can  be  taught  by  example. 

2.  Dispense  materials  economically,  helping  pupils  to  see  the  need  for  this, 
thus  teaching  them  thrift. 

3.  Make  the  post  of  monitor  a  coveted  one,  earned  by  neatness,  quietness, 
common  sense,  or  dependableness. 

4.  Have  all  the  heaviest  passing  or  collecting  done  by  monitors  and  teacher 
at  intermission. 

C— VALUABLE  SEAT-WORK  FROM   DISCARDED   TEXT- 
BOOKS. 

Excellent  seat-work  can  be  prepared  from  discarded  arithmetics,  geographies 
(using  maps  and  pictures  as  well  as  reading  material),  and  histories,  but  since 
there  is  not  space  for  all,  only  a  discussion  of  seat-  and  study-work  possible  to 
prepare  from  old  readers  is  given.  Much  of  this  can  be  done  before  the  first  day 
of  school. 

Note:  Wherever  it  can  possibly  be  done,  let  pupils  do  the  selecting,  cutting, 
mounting,  arranging,  and  labeling,  of  envelopes  or  boxes.  The  list  does  not  pre- 
tend to  be  exhaustive,  but  only  suggestive. 

I.  When  books  are  used  intact  (so  books  may  afterwards  be  "exchanged"  or  sold 

for  a  small  sum). 


2SS  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

A.  Pass  for  children  who  are  through  other  work  to  use  in  one  or  more  ways, 
for  example: 

1.  Select  a  story  you  would  like  to  hear  read  aloud. 

2.  Select  a  story  (or  poem)  you  would  like  to  read  to  the  class. 

3.  Give  the  pages  on  which  you  find  stories  about — 

a.  Dogs,  cats,  horses,  cows.     b.  Wild  animals,     c.  Birds,     d.  Flow- 
ers,   trees,    etc.     e.   Kindness    to    older    people,     f.  Courage, 
g.    Love  of  home  or  parents  or  sisters,     h.  Kings  and  queens, 
or  princes  and  princesses,     i.  Fairies,     j.   Giants,     k.  Indians. 
1.  Some  geographical  topic  being  studied,     m.  Some  historical 
topic  being  studied. 
Of  course  the  title  selected  under  "1"  and  "rn"  for  any  one  child  or  for  any 
one  lesson  or  text-book  must  fit  the  book  in  hand,  or  the  child's  interests,  or  the 
topics  desired  to  be  looked  up. 

This  is  helping  the  child  organize  the  book  and  giving  him  a  motive  for  extra 
silent  reading.  The  teacher  may  use  this  information  in  a  card  catalogue  for 
the  room — a  catalogue  of  topics  commonly  needed  in  that  grade.  Or  pupils  may 
be  making  themselves  booklets  on  different  topics  into  which  they  put  the  refer- 
ence pages. 

4.  Underline  words  on  certain  designated  pages,  to  suit  age  of  pupils, 
for  example: 

a.  Words  of  two,  three,  etc.,  syllables,  b.  Words  beginning  with 
c  sounded  like  k.  c.  Words  beginning  with  c  sounded  like  s 
(then  contrast  these  and  note  rule  for  c's  being  soft  before  e, 
i,  y).  d.  Words  containing  port  (to  carry)  or  fer  (to  bear)  as 
export,  transfer,  defer,  etc.  e.  Words  containing  certain 
phonic  stems,  as  ick,  edge,  ight,  ack,  etc.  f.  Words  ending  in 
ing.  g.  Words  beginning  with  any  desired  letter,  h.  Words 
that  indicate  in  general  good  qualities;  c.  g.,  good,  bright 
pretty,  sweet,  happy,  gay,  cheerful,  plentiful,  i.  Words  that 
indicate  contrasting  qualities — bad,  dull,  ugly,  sour,  Sad,  sor- 
rowful, glum,  scanty,  j.  Action  words,  k.  Nouns,  or  verbs, 
adjectives,  adverbs,  etc.,  for  an  older  class. 

5.  Name  the  paragraphs  or  sections  of  certain  designated  stories  or  de- 

scriptions and  write  names  on  the  margins. 

6.  Find  the  humorous  parts. 

7.  Read  the  story  and  be  ready  to  give  or  write  the  gist  of  it  in  20,  30, 

or  50  words. 

8.  Read  a  designated  story  and  then  write  an  original  story  along   the 

same  lines. 

9.  Read  a  story  and  then  write  any  story  you've  ever  heard,  of  which 

this  reminds  you. 

10.  Copy  from  some  one  story  all  words  meaning  just  one  (singular 

nouns).     Make  each  mean  more  than  one  (plural). 

11.  Copy  all  the  plurals  in  a  given  story  and  then  write  the  singulars. 

12.  Copy  the  verbs  and  make  all  present  tense,  past  tense,  future  tense, 

for  example. 

13.  Copy  the  adjectives  or  adverbs  and  write  the  corresponding  adverbs 

or  adjectives. 
II.   When  books  may  be  cut  up.     (Usually,  but  not  always,  two  books  of  one  sort 
will  be  necessary,  so  the  complete  stories  can  be  mounted.) 


Teaching  Children  to  Study. — Seat-Work.  289 

Pictures. 

1.  All  full-page  pictures  and  such  smaller  pictures  as  do  not  interfere 

with  stories  to  be  saved  may  be  carefully  trimmed  and  mounted 
and  used  in  some  of  these  ways. 

a.  Cut  into  sections  to  be  used  as  puzzles  to  be  put  together 

again — each  cut-up  picture  in  its  own  envelope,  on  which 
should  be  marked  the  number  of  pieces  and  perhaps  the  title 
and  number  corresponding  to  number  on  back  of  each  piece. 
(Thus,  if  pieces  are  dropped  on  the  floor,  the  correct  envelope 
can  be  quickly  found.) 

b.  Several   pictures   put   into   envelopes   and   accompanied    by 

printed  words  suggested  by  the  pictures;  children  match 
words  and  pictures. 

c.  One  picture  and  several  words  suggested  by  it  put  into  en- 

velope. 

(1)  Children  lay  words  on  correct  parts  of  picture. 

(2)  Children  make  sentences  containing  the  words — sen- 
tences which  would  fit  the  picture. 

(3)  Children  write  a  story  suggested  by  the  picture,  us- 
ing as  many  of  the  words  as  possible. 

(4)  Words  arranged  alphabetically. 

(5)  Words  arranged  according  to  sequence  of  ideas,  as 
suggested  by  the  picture. 

d.  Pictures  used  as  suggestions  for  children's  drawings,   paper 

cuttings,  etc. 

e.  Black-and-white  pictures  colored  with  water-color  paints  or 

with  crayolas. 

f.  Characters  in  pictures  named. 

2.  Pictures  put  into  envelopes  with  definite  questions  to  fit  each  pic- 

ture.    For  example — 


"can't  you  talk." 
By  Permission  of  The  Perry  Pictures  Company,  Maiden,  Mass. 

How  many  living  things  in  this  picture?     Name  them. 
Which  do  you  like  best?     Why? 
Which  is  the  oldest?     How  do  you  know? 


290  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

Which  is  the  youngest?     How  do  you  know? 
What  time  of  the  year  is  it?     What  makes  you  think  so? 
Make    a    list  of    all  the   things    being  done   by  any  one  in   the 
picture. 

What  sounds  can  each  make? 

3.  Picture  put  into  envelope  with  complete  sentences  from  a  story  about 

the  picture.  Children  arrange  sentences  in  sensible  order  to  fit 
the  picture. 

4.  Pictures  saved  for  children's  ABC  booklets,  or  "animal"    booklets, 

or  "My  Book"  booklets. 

B.  Stories  or  poems  as  wholes — mounted  on  one  side  only  of  cards,  neatly  cut 

and  large  enough  to  permit  a  good  margin,  put  into  large  envelopes,  num- 
bered and  perhaps  labeled. 

1.  Children  who  finish  work  permitted  to  get  and  read  stories. 

2.  If  stories  are  not  named,  children  find  good  names,  and  when  sev- 

eral have  been  found  (in  a  fortnight  or  a  month)  children  read 
story  aloud  and  vote  on  the  best  title,  by  which  the  story  is  there- 
after designated. 

3.  Each  story  or  poem   accompanied   by   questions   to   be   answered. 

(Some  suggestions  in  the  Coast-Guard  lesson,  pp.  241-245.) 

4.  If  stories  are  short,  such  as  anecdotes,  incidents,  or  fables,  each  may 

be  treated  in  many  ways. 

a.  Find  a  name  to  fit  it.  b.  Give  the  gist  of  it  in  one  sentence. 
c.  Outline  it.  d.  Illustrate  it  with  drawing,  paper  cutting, 
etc.  e.  Write  it  in  your  own  words,  f .  Copy  it,  supplying 
a  word  which  means  the  same  in  place  of  every  word  you 
can.  g.  Learn  the  anecdote  so  you  can  tell  it.  h.  Be  ready 
to  tell  a  similar  incident  of  your  own.  i.  Change  the  per- 
son from  third  to  first,  or  vice  versa,  j.  Change  the  tense, 
k.  If  people  talk,  change  direct  to  indirect  quotations,  or 
vice  versa. 

5.  In  longer  stories,  let  pupils — 

a.  Tell  at  what  points  changes  in  the  thought  occur,  b.  Whether 
the  story  is  liked  or  not,  with  reasons  for  decision,  c.  Give 
the  five  (or  any  number  of)  main  points  of  the  story,  d. 
Make  the  story  into  "chapters"  as  in  a  book,  and  name  each 
chapter,  e.  Pick  out  words  and  phrases  pleasing  to  the  ear. 
f.  Pick  out  all  the  newest  words  or  expressions. 

C.  Stories  cut  into  paragraphs  or  sections,  and  poems  cut  into  stanzas  or  sec- 

tions, and  each  section  mounted  on  a  card  with  a  margin.  Children  may 
then  be  given  envelopes  containing  all  the  sections  of  one  story,  or  each 
child  may  receive  but  one  section.     Suggestions  follow: 

1.  Arrange  the  sections  to  make  a  consecutive  story. 

2.  Name  each  section. 

3.  Be  ready  to  read  your  section  so  well  that  when  every  one  reads 

there  will  be  no  break;  let  it  seem  like  one  person  reading. 

4.  Guess  what  comes  before  and  after  your  section. 

5.  Write  the  ending  as  you  think  it  will  be.     As  you  wish  it  might  be. 
(i.  Copy  all  the  words  in  your  section,  grouping  them  by  syllables. 

7.  Same,  arranging  words  alphabetically. 


Teaching  Children  to  Study.— Seat- Work.  291 

8.  Rewrite  your  section — 

a.  In  your  own  words,     b.  Supplying  synonyms  wherever  pos- 
sible,    c.  In  changed  person,     d.  In  changed  tense. 

9.  Copy  ten  words: 

a.  The  hardest*,     b.  The  longest,     c.  That  begin  with .     d. 

That  end  in .     e.  That  you  like. 

10.  Take  the  ten  words  and  write  for  each  some  associated  word: 

a.  By  likeness,  b.  By  contrast,  c.  Whole  if  part  is  given;  e.  g., 
door,  if  knob  is  named,  d.  Part  if  whole  is  given,  e. 
Function  if  object  is  named;  e.  g.,. clock — to  tell  time.  f. 
Material,  if  object  is  known;  e.  g.,  apron — cotton,  cloth, 
gingham,  calico,  or  lawn.  g.  Rhymes;  e.  g.,  grow,  snow, 
throw,  sew,  etc.  h.  Sounds  made  if  animals  are  named;  e.  g., 
dog,  barks;  horse,  neighs,  i.  Object  used  where:  Cup,  in 
kitchen;  knife,  at  the  table;  table,  in  the  library. 
(See  suggestions  for  use  when  books  are  not  cut  up,  many  of  which  can  be 
used  for  cut-up  stories  as  well.) 

D.  Sentences,  word  lists,  words,  and  alphabet  letters. 

1.  Paste  sentences  on  a  card  with  enough  space  after  each  sentence  for 

child  to  fill  in  one  sentence. 

a.  Sentences  kept  whole  and  put  in  envelope  with  card.     Chil- 

dren to  lay  on  card  sentence  just  like  the  one  above. 

b.  Same,  only  sentences  are  cut  into  words  or  phrases  and  must 

be  matched  with  wholes,  part  by  part. 

c.  Same,  only  words  are  cut  into  letters  from  which  sentences 

must  be  built  up. 

2.  Write  sentences  on  a  card  and  children  find  printed  sentences,  as 

above,  to  correspond. 

3.  Children  find  pictures  to  fit  sentences,  or  make  pictures  to  fit  them. 

4.  Word  lists  often  found  at  the  beginning  or  end  of  a  lesson,  or  found 

at  the  end  of  a  reader,  may  be  mounted  on  cards  for  children  to  use. 
a.  Copy  list.  b.  Rearrange  list  by  length  of  words,  c.  Rear- 
range by  meanings,  d.  Rearrange  alphabetically,  e.  Match 
list  from  loose  words  in  envelope,  f.  Same  from  loose  let- 
ters, g.  Match  with  synonyms,  h.  Write  corresponding 
antonyms,  i.  Write  as  long  a  list  as  possible  suggested  by 
the  hardest  word.  j.  Ditto  by  the  longest  word.  k.  Ditto 
by  the  word  you  like  best. 

5.  These  same  lists  need  not  be  mounted,  but  may  be  given  to  pupils 

to  cut  up  and  paste  in  their  "dictionaries" — little  folded  booklets 

of  26  pages,  with  one  letter  of  the  alphabet  on  each  page  and  under 

that  letter  only  words  beginning  with  it.     Of  course  the  words 

can't  be  in  perfect  alphabetical  order  because  they  will  be  collected 

at  different  times.     These  "dictionaries"  may  be  used,  later,  for 

word  drill,  spelling  lessons,  phonics,  etc. 

Adapting  a  mother's  story  of  how  she  entertains  her  convalescent 

boy,  a  teacher  may  for  an  occasional  study  period  let  pupils  cut  up 

readers  or  magazines  to  illustrate  a  story  which  the  teacher  or  some 

child  has  put  upon  the  blackboard.     For  example: 

Once  there  were  a  father  and  a  mother  and  their  two  little  boys.     (Each 

time  we  vary  the  family  to  suit  ourselves.)     Here  the  children  stop  to  find  a 


292  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

picture  of  a  house  for  the  family  to  live  in — sometimes  it  is  a  big  farmhouse,  some- 
times a  beach  cottage,  and  sometimes  children  even  choose  a  boat;  this  is  cut 
out  and  pasted  in  a  book.  If  we  are  to  be  in  the  country  we  hunt  for  a  picture 
of  a  barn  and  all  the  animals  that  belong  to  a  farm.  After  they  are  all  pasted 
neatly  we  continue  reading  the  story,  illustrating  as  we  go  on.  We  tell  what  one 
day  with  this  family  is  like,  or  we  have  them  go  on  a  picnic.  There  is  a  great 
deal  of  amusement  in  finding  pictures  of  what  they  carry  for  their  luncheon. 

With  a  few  suggestions  on  the  teacher's  part  any  child  will  enjoy  making  up 
the  story,  putting  in  all  sorts  of  adventures,  and  since  there  is  no  end  to  the 
things  that  our  family  does,  it  is  always  a  delight  and  a  lasting  amusement. 

7.  Similar  work  may  be  done  for  booklets  on — 

a.  The  Kitchen,  b.  The  Dining-Room.  c.  Our  House,  d.  The 
Circus,  e.  The  Barn.  f.  My  Playthings,  g.  My  Pets,  etc. 
h.  Last  Vacation,  etc. 

8.  From   the  pages  not  otherwise  needed,   pupils  can  cut  sentences, 

words,  and  letters,  with  which  to  fill  spool-boxes  or  heavy  envelopes 
for  seat-work. 

IX.— MEASURING   RESULTS  IN  EDUCATION. 

For  somewhat  over  ten  years  students  of  education  have  been  making  more 
or  less  scientific  measurements  of  educational  results  and  critical  studies  of  school 
conditions. 

For  those  who  want  to  make  a  careful  study  of  the  whole  movement,  much 
literature  is  available.  The  early  work,  necessarily  crude  and  unsatisfactory 
because  it  broke  virgin  soil,  deserves  students'  attention  for  the  same  reason  that 
pioneer  work  does  in  any  field.  Later  efforts  have  been  widely  scattered  over 
the  United  States  and  published  in  so  many  different  forms  that  it  has  been  vir- 
tually impossible  for  teachers  in  service  to  keep  up  with  the  literature.  Dr. 
William  S.  Gray  is  printing  some  summarizing  articles  in  The  Elementary  School 
Journal  for  1916-17,*  while  Dr.  M.  E.  Haggerty,  head  of  the  Bureau  of  Coop- 
erative Research,  University  of  Minnesota,  is  now  working  on  several  tests, 
hoping  that  many  teachers  during  the  current  school  year  will  assist  him  in  giv- 
ing these  tests  and  in  checking  the  results  of  Minnesota  school  work  in  spelling, 
reading,  grammar,  language,  composition,  and  handwriting.  He  will  issue  bulle- 
tins from  the  University.  The  Northwestern  School  Supply  Company  will  print 
or  sell  at  low  cost  all  tests  used  by  Dr.  Haggerty  or  mentioned  in  this  Manual, 
but  all  communications  should  be  addressed  to  the  Bureau  of  Cooperative  Re- 
search, University  of  Minnesota. 

Teachers  who  wish  to  begin  a  study  of  standard  measurements  will  find  the 
following  references  valuable.  The  pursuit  of  all  sources  mentioned  in  these  will 
soon  open  wide  many  other  doors: 

1.  The  Fourteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education — Part  I — 
78c — University  of  Chicago  Press. 

2.  Consult  list  of  Teachers  College  (N.  Y.)  publications,  selecting  the  numbers  dealing  with 
measurements. 

3.  Consult  contents  of  The  Elementary  School  Journal  (formerly  Teacher),  University  of  Chi- 
cago Press,  for  the  last  two  or  three  years. 

4.  Scientific  Management  in  Education,  J.  M.  Rice,  (1012);  Hinds,  Noble,  and  Eldredge. 

5.  Secure  reports  from  a  few  of  the  many  cities  having  made  surveys  during  the  last  few  years: 
Springfield,  111.;  New  York  City;  Cleveland;  Kansas  City;  fioise,  Idaho;  etc. 

0.   Watch  School  Education  for  Dr.  M.  E.  Haggerty's  bulletins  and  reports. 

*  Reprints  of  these  can  be  obtained  for  5c  a  copy  from  Dr.  Wm.  S.  Gray,  University  of  Chicago. 


Measuring  Results. — Test  Materials.  293 

Believing,  however,  that  the  great  majority  of  teachers  care  less  about  the 
history  of  the  movement  and  the  scientific  methods  of  deriving  scales  than  they 
do  about  the  values  to  be  secured  and  the  actual  methods  of  administering  tests, 
the  remainder  of  this  article  will  confine  itself  to  a  brief  discussion  of  the  last- 
named  points,  and  to  only  such  references  as  are  immediately  essential  and  have 
not  been  named  before. 

REFERENCES  FOR  AVAILABLE  TEST  MATERIAL. 

A.  General  Menial  Ability. 

1.  Kuhlman — Revision  of  the  Rinet-Simon  System  for  Measuring  the  Intelligence  of  Chil- 

dren; Dr.  F.  Kuhlman,  Faribault,  Minn.;  25c. 

2.  Yerkes,  Bridges,  and  Hardwick — A  Point  Scale  for  Measuring  Mental  Ability;  Warwick 

and  York,  Inc.,  Baltimore,  Md.;  $1.25. 

3.  Terman — Measurement  of  Intelligence;   Houghton,   Mifflin   Co.,  $1.60. 

B.  Quality  Scales  for  Use  in  Rating  Children's  Handwriting. 

1.  Thorndike — Teachers'  Estimates  of  the  Quality  of  Specimens  of  Handwriting;   Teachers 

College  Record,  November,  1911;  Teachers  College,  N.  Y.;  30c. 

2.  Ayres — A  Scale  for  Measuring  the  Quality  of  Handwriting  of  School   Children;   Russell 

Sage  Foundation,  N.  Y.;  10c. 

3.  Freeman — The  Teaching  of  Handwriting;  Houghton,  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston,  60c; 

4.  Johnson  and  Stone — Measuring  the  Quality  of  Handwriting;  The  Elementary  School  Jour- 

nal, February,  1916;  University  of  Chicago,;  20c. 

5.  Haggerty,  University  of  Minnesota.     (Ready  in  October.) 

C.  Arithmetic  Tests. 

1.  Courtis — Efficiency  Tests;  S.  A.  Courtis,  Detroit,  Mich.     (Write  Dr.  Haggerty.) 

2.  Courtis — Standard  Practice  Tests;  World  Book  Co.,  Chicago.     (Price  list  sent  on  request.) 

3.  Thompson — Minimum  Essentials;  Ginn  &  Co.,  Chicago;  90c  and  $1.00  for  500  sheets. 

D.  Reading  Tests. 

1.  Thorndike — The   Improved    Scale   for    Measuring    Ability    in    Reading;     Teachers   College 

Record,  November,  1915,  and  January,  1916;  40c  each. 

2.  Gray,  Wm.  S. — Methods  of  Testing  Reading;   The  Elementary   School  Journal,  January 

and  February,  1916;  20c  each. 

Sheet  tests,  50c  a  hundred  for  either  oral  or  silent  reading  tests. 

3.  Kelly — The   Kansas  Silent  Reading  Tests;  Bureau  of  Educational   Measurements,    State 

Normal  School,  Emporia,  Kan.;  35c  a  hundred. 

4.  Jones — Phonetic  and  Sight  Word-Tests;  R.  G.  Jones,  Rockford,  111.;   $2.00  for  complete 

set  to  test  100  pupils. 

5.  Dr.  M.  E.  Haggerty — University  of  Minnesota. 

6.  Haggerty,  revised  Thorndike  tests  in  Indiana  University  Report. 

E.  Spelling  Tests. 

1.  Ayres — Measuring  Scale  for  Spelling;  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  New  York;  10c. 

2.  Buckingham — -Spelling    Ability:   Its    Measurement   and    Distribution;    Teachers'    College, 

New  York. 

3.  Jones — Concrete  Investigation  of  The  Material  of  English  Spelling;  University  of   South 

Dakota,  Vermilion;  10c. 

4.  Haggerty.     (Address  above.) 

F.  Language,  Composition,  and  Grammar  Tests  and  References. 

1.  A  Course  of  Study  in  Grammar  Based  on  Kansas  City  Survey;  Charters  and  Miller;    Uni- 

versity of  Missouri  Bulletins,  Vol.  10,  No.  2. 

2.  Briggs — Teachers'  College  Record,  September,  1913. 

3.  Trabue — Completion  Test  Language  Scales;  Teachers'  College. 

4.  Rice — Scientific  Management  in  Education. 

5.  Boise  Public  Schools,  Special  Report,  June,  1915. 

6.  Hillegas — A   Scale  for  the   Measurement  of  Quality  in   English   Composition   by   Young 

People;  Teachers'  College  Record,  September,  1912;  30c. 

7.  Hosic — Chapter  VII  of  Fourteenth  Yearbook. 

8.  Haggerty.     (Address  above.)     (Language,  Grammar,  Composition,  ready  by  October.) 

G.  Geography  and  History.     (Reference  only.) 

1.  Bagley — Chapter  IX  of  Fourteenth  Yearbook. 

2.  Mayberry — in  March,  1916,  The  Elementary  School  Journal. 
H.  Drawing  Scale. 

1.  Thorndike — The    Measurement    of    Achievement    in    Drawing;    Teachers    College    Record, 
November,  1913;  30c. 


294  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers, 

values  of  measuring  results. 

A.  To  the  Community: 

1.  In  learning  local  conditions. 

2.  In  discovering  local  needs. 

3.  In  bettering  local  methods  and  administration. 

4.  In  placing  education  on  at  least  an  equal  plane  with  other  community- 

activities — fully  as  worth  measuring  as  the  temperature,  or  the  gas, 
water,  and  electricity;  certainly  worth  as  much  attention  as  the  motions 
made  by  girls  in  folding  handkerchiefs,  or  of  workmen's  efficiency  in  a 
dozen  fields. 

B.  To  the  School  as  a  Whole: 

1.  To  insure  cumulative  effect  through  the  grades. 

2.  To  eliminate  waste  due  to  poor  equipment,  poor  methods,  or   poor  per- 

sonalities. 

3.  To  produce  pride  in  growth. 

C.  To  the  Superintendent: 

1.  To  know  his  school  in  all  its  parts. 

2.  To  plan  better  courses  of  study. 

3.  To  plan  a  better  system  of  administration. 

4.  To  supervise  teachers  more  capably. 

5.  To  rate  teachers  more  justly. 

6.  To  examine  pupils  more  effectively  than  by  former  methods. 

D.  To  the  Teachers: 

1.  To  secure  greater  cooperation  and  unity  of  purpose. 

2.  To  grow  in  teaching  power — 

a.  Finding  better  methods;  b.  eliminating  nonessentials;  c.  developing 
breadth  of  view;  d.  increasing  self  confidence — (1)  because 
of  objective  instead  of  subjective  standards;  (2)  because  the 
measures  are  definite  rather  than  vague.  (No  longer  is  one  class 
merely  "better  than  last  year's  class,"  but  it  is  exactly  so  much 
better  by  some  scale,  however  crude  that  may  be.) 

3.  To  grow  in  appreciation  of  scientific  articles  now  so  numerous  in  current 

literature. 

E.  To  the  Pupils: 

1.  To  know  their  individual,  class,  and  school  ranks. 

2.  To  take  pride  in  improving. 

3.  To  feel  confidence  in  what  they  know  and  can  do. 

HOW  TO  ADMINISTER  TESTS. 

In  general,  each  purchasable  set  of  tests  is  accompanied  by  very  definite 
directions,  by  sample  score-sheets,  and  by  all  material  necessary  for  making  a 
good  test.  The  novice,  who  naturally  wants  his  school  to  appear  well,  is  apt  to 
become  nervous,  and  sometimes  unwittingly  fails  to  give  an  honest  test.  The 
first  rule  to  follow  is:  Make  the  conditions  normal  and  give  a  perfectly  fair  test. 
It  is  the  present  status  of  efficiency  that  teachers  want  to  learn,  so  that  they  may 
know  on  what  phases  to  work  for  improvement.  The  later  tests  which  show 
growth  are  the  valuable  ones,  if  they,  too,  are  honestly  given. 

Freeman's  article  in  February,  1916,  and  Mayberry's  article  in  March,  1916, 
of  The  Elementary  School  Journal,  arc  helpful  along  this  line. 


Measuring  Results. — Standards. — Discipline. 


295 


MINNESOTA  COURSE  OF  STUDY  STANDARDS. 

The  only  definite  standards  set  are  found  under  Penmanship,  one  of  the  sub- 
jects easiest  to  standardize.  Recent  Ethical  Culture  School  (New  York)  experi- 
ments corroborate  what,  from  personal  experience  and  from  observation  of  many 
classes  of  pupils,  the  writer  believes,  namely,  that  there  is  a  natural  period  of 
pride  in  penmanship  at  about  the  age  of  11  or  12.  Because  the  writer  also  be- 
lieves that  wherever  possible  the  rise  of  an  interest  should  be  utilized,  penmanship 
is  not  forced  until  about  fifth  or  sixth  grade.  As  is  frequently  said,  the  entire 
course  is  merely  suggestive,  local  communities  being  urged  to  adapt  and  not  to 
adopt  the  state  course  as  it  stands.  Hence,  those  who  feel  that  the  minimum 
speed  standards  set  are  too  low,  can  easily  alter  them.  Although  the  quality 
standard  is  in  all  cases  left  to  the  community,  the  speed  standard  parallels  it  in 
a  general  way. 

The  following  table  of  comparisons  of  speeds  clearly  shows  the  writer's  position : 
Comparison  of  Penmanship  Speed  Standards  from  Several  Sources. 
(All  reduced  to  "letters  in  a  minute";  decimals  omitted.) 


GRADE 

11 

III 

IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 

Minimum  standard  only.   Less  demanded  than  in 
some  scales  until  the  natural  acceleration  period 
in  fifth-  and  sixth-grades  is  reached;  then  just  as 
much  or  more 

20-30 

25-35 

35-45 

45-60 

60-75 

75-85 

85-95 

Courtis.  Penmanship  in  Original  Work. 

Words  reduced  to  letters,  counting  3J  letters  to  a 
word.     From  p.  56  of  the  Fourteenth  Yearbook 

31 

42 

40 

56 

59 

63 

Courtis.     Penmanship  in  Reproduction. 

38 

4!) 

59 
:;',i  83 

66 

47-93 

6:; 

73 

45-90 
70 

SO 

Cleveland  Survey. 

Shows  wide  variations  found  in  four  upper  grades 
only.     These  are  class  averages,   hence  do   not 
show  individual  variations  from  2  to  129  letters  a 

16-101 

Freeman.     Fifty-six  cities  tested. 

:>7 

44 

51 

59 

73 

Freeman.     Group  selected  for  speed. 

45 
36 

53 

4S 

(10 

56 

68 

65 

70 

SO 

SO 

94 

Freeman.     Proposed  Average  Standard. 

From  p.  76  Fourteenth  Yearbook 

90 

Freeman.     Proposed  minimum  to  maximum  stand- 
ard. 
From  p.  150  of  The  Teaching  of  Hand -Writing.  .  . 

30-40 

40-50 

50-60 

60-70 

70   Ml 

SO-90 

90-100 

X.— DISCIPLINE. 

(A  few  positive  statements  for  the  sake  of  brevity.) 

A.  Discipline  should  mean  the  securing  of  right  conduct  as  an  expression  of  right 
attitude  on  the  part  of  the  child* 

1.  But,  do  secure  right  conduct — set  a  standard!     To  wait  until  the  child 
feels  like  doing  right  won't  teach  him  what  is  right.     He  must  first 


*  For  this  definition  and  several  points  that  follow,  the  author  is  indebted  to  Keith's  Elemen- 
tary Education. 


296  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

get  the  ideals  or  standards  of  the  group  in  which  he  lives.     Let  him 
know  what  your  standards  are. 

a.  Use  suggestion  as  a  first  means.     Illustration:  "I   wish  every 

paper  could  look  as  neat  as  this  one"  (showing  an  approved 
paper). 

b.  Use  direction,  if  suggestion  isn't  sufficient.     For  example,  "Each 

child  must  hand  in  a  neat  paper." 

c.  If  neither  suggestion  nor  direction  secures  the  desired  result,  re- 

sort to  punishment  of  the  delinquents. 

(1)  Mean  what  you  say,  and  prove  it  to  the  pupils. 

(2)  Be  insistent  on  adherence  to  the  standards  set  up. 

(3)  The  same  reprimand  of  punishment  for  the  same  offense 
committed  by  the  same  child  will  soon  prove  ineffective, 
hence  be  fertile  in  expedients. 

(4)  Have  reserve  power,  not  exhausting  the  final  resources 

in  the  first  move. 

The  last  few  points  may  be  illustrated  by  a  discussion  of  a  very  common  breach  of  order — 
whispering.  Perhaps  the  teacher  first  suggests  that,  though  it  isn't  wrong  in  itself,  whispering 
interferes  with  good  work  and  consequently  should  not  prevail  in  school.  The  majority  of  the 
pupils  will  succeed  in  not  whispering,  but  some  cannot.  The  teacher  may  now  discuss  just  how 
whispering  interferes  with  good  work — how  the  whisperer  doesn't  study;  how  the  one  to  whom  he 
whispers  is  unfairly  interrupted;  how  those  nearby,  who  hear  the  confusion,  are  disturbed;  how 
the  teacher  may  hear  the  noise  and  have  to  give  only  partial  attention  to  the  class  he  is  teaching 
until  he  locates  and  stops  the  disorder;  and  consequently  how  the  pupils  in  that  class  receive  less 
than  their  fair  share  of  attention  or  good  instruction.  If  the  teacher  is  obliged  to  go  to  the  whis- 
perer or  to  reprimand  him  aloud,  every  one  is  disturbed.  Having  thus  helped  pupils  to  see  how 
far-reaching  a  little  lack  of  self-control  may  be  in  its  consequences,  the  teacher  may  urge  that  all 
help  those  who  forget  by  shaking  their  heads  and  refusing  to  reply. 

Should  this  not  be  effective,  the  teacher  may  say,  Since  some  of  you  do  not  take  your  share 
of  responsibility  in  keeping  our  room  a  quiet  place  for  study,  let  me  say  to  you  that  you  must 
refrain  from  whispering.  I'll  help  you  all  I  can  by  giving  you  plenty  of  work  to  do,  and  by  a 
warning  nod  when  I  am  not  too  busy;  but  in  the  main  you  must  look  out  for  yourselves,  and  you 
must  not  whisper  any  more. 

Then  comes  the  test  of  whether  the  teacher  means  what  he  says.  A  child  whispers.  The 
teacher  must  not  ignore  it  on  the  plea  that  he  knows  "the  child  forgot,"  or  that  it  was  "only  one 
child,"  or  that  it  was  so  "quietly  done  that  few  were  disturbed."  The  punishment,  sympatheti- 
cally administered,  must  be  swift  and  sure.  The  offender  is  called  to  stand  by  the  teacher,  to  sit 
in  another  seat,  or  is  publicly  named  as  an  offender,  or  has  his  name  put  on  the  board  as  one  who 
"forgets,"  or  is  told  to  forfeit  his  recess,  depending,  of  course,  on  the  age  of  the  child  and  the 
means  that  will  best  fit  him.  For  a  second-  or  third-grade  child,  to  stand  by  the  teacher  will  be 
enough.  The  next  offense  may  be  punished  by  the  child's  having  to  sit  in  a  smaller  seat,  as  if  he 
were  still  too  little  to  remember.  The  next  time,  by  changing  his  seat  so  that  he  isn't  tempted  to 
talk  to  the  particular  friend  involved.  The  next  time  the  teacher  keeps  him  for  a  private  talk 
and  lets  him  lay  on  his  desk  for  the  day,  a  card  that  has  on  it  a  picture  suggesting  silence;  for  ex- 
ample: (a)  Mother  saying  "Sh"  because  baby  is  going  to  sleep;  or  (b)  Mother  with  finger  on  lips 
as  she  points  to  baby  already  asleep;  or  (c)  a  card  that  says,  "I  can  keep  from  whispering,  and  I 
will!"  or  (d)  that  says  "Remember";  or  (e)  just  "Silence!"  These  cards  should  be  treated  as 
helps;  but  if  they,  too,  are  ineffective,  the  teacher  will  do  well  to  make  a  record  of  how  much  help 
the  child  has  needed,  or  how  many  days  or  weeks  elapse  before  he  can  remember.  Some  children 
would  be  helped  by  having  such  a  record  made  public — as,  for  example,  on  the  blackboard  writei 
These  children  are  trying  not  to  whisper.     The  marks  indicate  the  days  they  have  needed  help  from 

others! 

John  Brown,     /  /  /  Jennie  Sims,     /////// 

But  some  children  would  simply  revel  in  this  publicity,  and  the  plan  would  be  no  deterrent  at  all. 
In  that  case  the  record  must  be  kept  in  the  teacher's  note-book,  for  just  the  child  and  teacher  to 
discuss  at  the  end  of  each  week  and  to  mark  the  child's  gain  in  self  control.  The  opposite  plan 
of  having  a  list  of  children  who  can  take  care  of  themselves  on  the  board,  with  the  names  of  delin- 
quents "conspicuous  by  their  absence,"  is  sometimes  valuable. 

Other  good  helps  to  be  used  are  (a)  to  send  an  inveterate  whisperer  with  his  book  to  study 
in  a  room  where  the  pupils  arc  known  to  be  especially  quiet  and  studious;  this  may  be  to  a  lower 


Discipline.  297 

grade  to  shame  the  whisperer  by  seeing  how  smaller  pupils  do  better  than  he,  or  to  an  upper  grade 
to  see  what  is  expected  of  him  Liter  and  how  lie  should  begin  at  once  to  learn  control.  The  form 
of  punishment  must,  of  course,  fit  the  mental  attitude  of  the  offender,  (b)  To  give  the  child  a  seat, 
for  several  days,  at  a  table  in  the  front  of  the  room  so  that  he  sees  nothing  that  is  going  on  behind 
him,  and  so  has  no  temptation  to  whisper,  (c)  To  have  the  child  make  up  the  time  he  has  lost  for 
himself  and  others  by  working  after  school.  (d)  To  deny  the  child  some  coveted  part  in  explain- 
ing an  exhibit,  because  he  hasn't  helped  all  he  could  to  make  the  work  easier  for  others  in  the  room. 
The  teacher  who  really  means  what  he  says  will  find  still  other  ways  to  help  individual  chil- 
dren. Though  no  schoolroom  can  be  absolutely  free  from  whispering,  and  though  whispering  is 
not  a  crime  (like  cheating  or  story-telling  or  stealing)  and  consequently  should  not  be  punished 
like  a  crime,  the  teacher  should  uphold  the  ideal  of  no  communication  during  study  times.  Plenty 
of  worth-while  work  to  keep  all  busy  is  the  primary  preventive  of  communication.  Chances  during 
recitations  for  the  children  to  express  themselves  freely  because  sure  of  sympathetic  treatment 
from  the  teacher  is  a  second  fundamental,  since  pupils  who  have  "said  their  say"  and  have  inter- 
esting tasks  to  do,  will  labor  industriously  and  independently  at  the  work.  A  few  minutes,  at 
more  or  less  frequent  intervals,  depending  on  the  grade,  given  to  free  movement  and  conversation, 
will  also  be  found  a  help  in  some  schools. 

2.  Next,  develop  conscience;  that  is,  give  pupils  sufficient  opportunity  in 

exercising  judgment  about  what  to  do,  and  in  seeing  the  good  or  poor 
result  of  their  conduct,  to  help  them  gradually  to  create  their  own 
standards,  no  longer  needing  to  depend  on  the  teacher's  approval  to 
know  whether  they  have  done  right  or  not. 

3.  Then  help  pupils  grow  in  will  power,  hence  give  chances  to  exercise 

initiative,  to  choose  a  line  of  action  in  a  wholly  new  situation.     If  the 
teacher  anticipates  every  situation   and   forestalls   any   exercise   of 
judgment  and  "will,"  pupils  do  not  grow. 
A  first-grade  teacher  who  had  a  daily  three-minute  rest  period  during  which  the  pupils  indulged 
in  free  movement  about  the  room  and  in  chatting  with  one  another,  gave  the  usual  signal  for  re- 
laxation on  the  first  spring  day  that  windows  were   wide  open.      In  less  than  a  minute  all  had  fol- 
lowed the  lead  of  two  or  three  and  were  clambering  over  one  another,  four  or  five  deep,  to    lean 
out  of  the  windows.     The  teacher  had  at  once  to  call  all  to  their  seats,  discuss  the  danger  of  fall- 
ing out  of  windows  so  high  from  the  ground,  of  torn  or  mussed  clothing  from  so  much  jostling,  as 
well  as  the  confusion  and  impoliteness  shown.     She  further  said:  "Now,  some  one  can't  be  always' 
with  you  to  say  'do'  or  'do  not'  do  thus  and  so;  you  have  to  learn  to  think  for  yourselves.     Be- 
cause you  didn't  do  so  this  morning,  we've  had  to  take  even  more  than  the  time  of  your  rest  period 
in  talking  about  it;  so  much  time,  in  fact,  that  instead  of  the  long  story  I  had  planned  to  tell  you 
we  have  time  for  only  a  very  short  one."     No  one  leaned  out  of  a  window  the  next  day. 

4.  Lastly,  help  pupils  to  broaden  their  ideas  of  right,  to  discriminate  be- 

tween "letter"  and  "spirit"  of  the  law  and  so  recognize  (a)  that  an 
act  in  itself  may  not  be  wrong,  but  is  wrong  in  some  places  (when 
others  are  disturbed,  or  when  a  law  is  violated,  or  when  one  fails  to 
do  his  own  work);  and  (b)  that  a  changed  form  of  the  act  is  just  as 
wrong  as  the  form  denied  (note-writing  instead  of  whispering,  for 
example). 
B.  Recognize  the  factors  which  help  a  pupil  to  form  and  to  change  his  standards  of 
behavior — heredity,  material  environment,  conduct  of  others,  and  the  child's 
own  conduct.     The  first  is  past  the  teacher's  power  to  change;  the  second 
can  be  changed  very  little  by  any  one  teacher;  the  third  and  fourth  are  the 
agencies  which  the  teacher  may  mold.     He  must,  himself,  be  honest,  prompt, 
respectful  to  others,  reliable,  and  generous;  he  must  choose  companions  of 
high  character;  he  must  suggest  only  persons  worthy  of  imitation  as  ideals 
for  pupils  to  follow;  he  must  secure  good  conduct  in  the  schoolroom,  first, 
that  the  weak  ones  may  follow  what  others  do,  and,  second,  because    one's 
own  conduct  influences  one's  morals:  he  who  does  wrong  loses  self-respect 
and  does  more  wrong;  he  who  is  held  to  doing  right  feels  a  glow  of  satisfac- 
tion that  makes  doing  right  the  easy  thing  to  continue. 


298  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

C.  Study  the  causes  of  poor  discipline  in  yourself  and  others  and  profit  by  the  dis- 

coveries. 

1.  Have  high  ideals  of  orderliness  in  the  room.     Of  conduct.     Of  work. 

a.  Be  a  good  housekeeper — keep  things  dusted;  put  away  pictures  or 

decorations  for  some  special  occasion  as  soon  as  their  purpose 
has  been  served.  Keep  things  fresh  and  up  to  date,  and  help 
the  children  to  be  orderly  in  getting  and  replacing  material,  in 
destroying  waste  paper,  in  keeping  desks  in  order,  and  in  assist- 
ing in  passing  materials. 

b.  Be  sensitive  to  unnecessary  noises,  confusion,  and  movement,  and 

quietly  but  firmly  demand  respectful  obedience  to  right  stand- 
ards. Children  like  a  teacher  who  is  business-like,  self-possessed, 
and  pleasant,  but  who  stands  for  his  own  rights;  they  choose  for 
a  playground  leader  one  who  demands  that  they  play  the  game 
fairly.     Children  like  to  be  made  to  do  right. 

c.  Plan  assignments  so  that  pupils  need  not  interrupt  the  teacher  nor 

communicate  with  their  companions  while  the  teacher  hears  an- 
other class. 

d.  Have  orderly  movements  to  and  from  classes,  the  wardrobe,  etc., 

with  as  few  directions  as  possible. 

e.  Inculcate  courteous  habits.     In  adult  life,   we  have  to  learn   to 

await  another's  convenience;  to  take  our  turn  to  speak;  to  knock 
at  a  door;  and  in  other  ways  gain  permission  to  usurp  another's 
time  or  attention.  A  habit  of  thoughtfulness  of  others  can  be 
started  in  school;  one  means  is  by  insisting  that  pupils  gain  per- 
mission to  speak,  to  leave  their  seats,  etc.;  another  is  by  having 
pupils  stand  in  good  position  to  recite  or  when  addressing  the 
teacher  or  a  visitor. 

f.  Hold   children   to   doing   faithful   work.     Recognize   and   prevent 

repetition  of  carelessness,  shirking,  and  dawdling. 

2.  Make  punishment  impersonal.     Few  misdemeanors  are  committed  as 

personal  affronts,  so  the  teacher  need  not  take  them  as  such.  Work 
must  be  done,  not  merely  because  the  teacher  said  so,  though  that  is 
a  good  lesson  to  learn  at  times,  but  because  the  child's  business  in 
life  is  to  get  his  lessons,  and  because  parents  support  schools  and  send 
children  there  that  they  may  learn  to  work.  The  teacher  must  see 
that  the  work  is  done,  but  the  child  who  fails  to  do  his  work  has  not 
offended  the  teacher;  he  has  failed  in  higher  things — in  trustworthi- 
ness, in  exactness,  in  holding  himself  to  a  hard  task,  in  honesty. 

3.  Cultivate  a  personality  that  makes  you: 

a.  Sympathetic  but  not  indulgent,  b.  Persevering  and  cheery  in  the 
face  of  difficulties,  c.  Self-reliant,  yet  open  to  advice,  d.  Able 
to  keep  school  matters  to  yourself,  e.  Loyal  to  your  superin- 
tendent, to  your  patrons,  and  to  your  pupils,  f.  Indefatigable 
in  the  preparation  of  lessons,  in  securing  helpful  material,  and 
in  trying  to  grow  professionally,  g.  Use  good  common  sense  on 
all  occasions. 

D.  Study  the  common  forms  of  punishment  and  judge  of  their  value  in  gradually 

securing  from  individuals  right  conduct  as  an  expression  of  right  attitude  or 
character. 


School  Laws  Teachers  Should  Note.       299 

E.  Study  children.  Note  their  changing  attitude  towards  different  forms  of  pun- 
ishment with  their  increasing  years,  and  try,  at  each  need  for  punishment, 
(suggestion  and  direction  being  of  no  avail  here,)  to  administer  the  right 
punishment  in  the  right  way  to  be  effective  in  real  character  development. 

XI.— A  FEW  ESPECIALLY  IMPORTANT  SCHOOL 
LAWS  WHICH  TEACHERS   SHOULD   NOTE.* 

Note:  The  first  figures  refer  to  section  numbers  in  the  1915  pamphlet  summarizing  Laws  of 
Minnesota  Relating  to  tlic  Public-School  System,  prepared  under  the  direction  of  State  Superinten- 
dent Schulz,  by  W.  H.  Williams.  A  copy  of  this  should  be  in  the  library  of  every  schoolhousc 
in  Minnesota  until  it  is  replaced  by  a  revision  of  the  same.  The  numbers  in  parentheses  are  those 
used  in  the  General  Statutes,  hence  any  law  can  be  quickly  found  even  in  a  revision  of  this  1915 
summary. 

§  147  (2796).  In  this  section,  the  word  "five"  before  months  should  be  "six." 
Compare  this  with  §  181,  in  which  the  law  says  that  the  minimum  school  year  is 
six  months. 

§  148  (9412-16).  School  should  not  be  held  on  any  legal  holiday.  Some 
teachers  do  hold  school  on  a  legal  holiday  so  that  they  may  take  some  more  con- 
venient date  for  a  vacation.  The  legal  holidays  are  selected  as  special  occasions 
for  showing  respect  and  patriotism,  and  children  should  be  instructed  in  the 
reason  for  so  doing.  To  disregard  the  law,  letting  any  day  be  substituted  for 
the  legal  holiday,  as  though  it  were  merely  a  day's  time  given  to  teacher  and  pupils, 
depreciates  the  love  of  country  and  of  God  which  these  holy-days  were  meant  to 
foster. 

§  150  (2835).     Note  that  instruction  in  morals  must  not  be  religious  teaching. 

§  173  (S634).  Corporal  punishment  must  be  reasonable  and  moderate  and 
exercised  only  for  the  good  of  the  child. 

§§  181-185  (2895-2899  as  amended  in  1915).  Teachers  should  read  these 
sections  and  make  sure  that  they  do  their  part  to  have  schools  receive  their  just 
proportion  of  state  and  county  funds.  Teachers  must  prevent  parents  and  chil- 
dren from  misconstruing  the  phrase,  "forty  days  of  attendance."  This  does  not 
mean  that  pupils  shall  attend  school  only  forty  days.  Besides  the  required  forty 
days'  attendance  of  a  pupil,  simply  demanded  that  the  district  may  be  entitled 
to  some  apportionment  of  funds,  the  child  must  continue  in  school  for  the  full 
term  of  school,  as  shown  in  §§  225-231. 

§  1S9  (Laws  of  1915).  The  Department  of  Education  issues  a  blank  Appli- 
ed! ion  for  State  Aid  to  Class  "A"  Rural  Schools  which  contains  the  rules  pertain- 
ing to  such  a  school's  equipment.  A  teacher  may  secure  such  a  blank  from  the 
county  superintendent  or  from  the  State  Department  of  Education,  St.  Paul. 
The  teacher  should  shoulder  his  full  share  of  responsibility  in  keeping  up  such 
equipment,  including  the  notifying  of  the  school-board  of  needed  repairs  or  sup- 
plies. 

§§  225-231  (2979-2985).  A  teacher  needs  to  know  the  exact  law  regarding 
compulsory  education,  noting  especially  his  own  duty  in  holding  children,  par- 
ents, and  school-board  if  necessary,  to  obedience  to  the  law.  The  teacher  should 
not  wait  several  days  before  finding  out  the  cause  of  a  child's  absence.  If  no 
member  of  his  family  nor  any  neighbor's  child  can  properly  account  for  the  ab- 
sence, the  teacher  should  at  once  telephone,  write,  or,  best  of  all,  visit  the  family. 
He  should  then  take  all  steps  provided  by  law. 

*  Thanks  for  help  on  this  section  are  due  County  Superintendent  A.  C.  Loomis,  Winona. 


300  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

§§  288-290  (2829,  2830-2864).  Teachers  should  be  thoroughly  conversant 
with  the  law  concerning  their  quantisations. 

§  295  (2960).  Note  the  Smith  decision,  Feb.  15,  1915,  regarding  pay  for 
time  spent  in  Institutes,  and  read  in  this  connection  §  271  (1020). 

§  299  (2838).  Teachers  should  know  in  what  branches  they  are  expected  to 
pass  examinations  if  by  this  means  they  secure  certificates. 

§  325  (2832).  Note  the  whole  section,  but  especially  the  paragraphs  con- 
cerning contracts  on  p.  89  of  report  used.  Although  a  person's  word  is  morally 
as  good  as  his  bond,  the  law  recognizes  only  a  written  contract,  so  teachers  need 
to  secure  such  an  instrument  before  counting  themselves  legally  employed. 

Teachers  are  urged  themselves  to  be  ruled  by  the  ethics  rather  than  the  law 
of  the  situation,  asking  leave  to  change  (if  they  desire  to)  whether  they  have 
given  an  oral  or  a  written  acceptance.  If  such  resignation  is  refused,  a  teacher 
should  cheerfully  abide  by  the  decision,  feeling  that  his  oral  acceptance  obligated 
him  to  remain  unless  willingly  released. 

§§  326-327  (2833-34).  Teachers  must  make  it  their  conscientious  business 
to  learn  how  to  keep  a  register  correctly  and  to  make  accurate  reports. 

§§  332-347  (Laws  of  1915).  Teachers  should  know  at  least  what  concerns 
them  individually  about  the  state  teacher's  insurance  and  retirement  fund.  The 
secretary  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  the  pension  fund,  The  Capitol,  St.  Paul,  will 
supply  necessary  blanks  and  circulars  of  information,  if  these  cannot  be  secured 
from  county  superintendents. 

XII.— A  TEACHER'S    BOOKS. 

Because  teachers  of  experience,  principals,  and  supervisors,  receive  numerous 
requests  from  young  teachers  concerning  "the  best  books  to  own,"  "what  I  ought 
to  read  to  grow  more,"  "how  I  can  understand  children,"  "what  book  is  best  for 
help  in  teaching  history"  (or  some  other  named  subject),  "what  material  is  avail- 
able for  school  entertainments,"  "what  reference-books  the  children  ought  to 
read  for  geography  or  history,"  "how  to  secure  parent  cooperation,"  and  the 
dozen  and  one  other  problems  which  assail  a  teacher,  it  seemed  very  proper  to 
include  in  this  Manual  a  list  of  books  which  might  help  comparatively  inexperi- 
enced teachers.  (Teachers  longer  in  service  know  the  many  means  of  keeping 
up  with  what  they  need,  hence  are  not  specifically  provided  for  here.)  Any  one 
who  has  attempted  to  make  a  similar  list  will  realize  how  unsatisfactory  the  re- 
sult is  felt  to  be,  for,  almost  before  the  printer's  ink  is  dry,  some  new  and  possibly 
better  publication  will  be  available.  Also  any  one  compiler  is  certain  to  have  a 
limited  range;  consequently,  the  lists  offered  are  to  be  used  merely  as  a  working 
basis  and  are  necessarily  tentative. 

A.— GENERAL  REFERENCES  TO  SECURE. 

1.  Minnesota  School  Library  List  for  1915-10.  (A  copy  should  be  found  in  every  school- 
house  in  the  state,  or  secured  from  Miss  Wilson,  Department  of  Education,  The  Capitol,  St.  Paul.) 
Refer  constantly  to  the  introduction  for  general  helps  about  books;  pp.  1  to  90  for  books  liked  by 
children,  for  the  books  to  have  as  desk  copies  in  every  subject,  for  reference-books  to  be  consulted 
by  pupils;  pp.  90  to  90  for  the  teacher's  own  books.  The  list  is  discriminatingly  selected  and  is 
up  to  date.     Hooks  here  mentioned  will  not  be  repeated  in  the  following  list. 

2.  Books  to  Read  Aloud:   Miss  Wilson.     (Same  address  as  above.) 

3.  Material  Descriptive  of  Minnesota  Secured  at  Little  Cost.  Public  library,  St.  Paul. 
(Enclose  stamp.) 

4.  Catalogs  of  The  Northwestern  School  Supply  Company,  Minneapolis;  the  St.  Paul  Book 
&  Stationery  Co.,  St.  Paul;  the  Milton  Bradley  Co.,  through  Thomas  Charles  Co.,  Chicago;  A. 
Flanagan,  Chicago;  and  book  lists  from  all  good  book  firms,  including  special  series  such  as  the 
Riverside  Educational  Monographs,  and  the  Riverside  Text-Books  in  Education. 


Teachers'  Books.  301 

5.  Bulletins  issued  by  the  State  Department  of  Education  and  the  University  of  Minnesota 
which  apply  to  any  phase  of  a  teacher's  work. 

6.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletins — often  free — seldom  over  10c  each.  a.  Teaching 
Material  in  Government  Publications,  No.  558,  10c.  Especially  valuable  as  source  for  other 
material;  for  example,  Fifty  Common  Birds  pictured  and  described,  15c;  Games,  Songs,  Marches 
etc.,  for  Indian  Schools,  (but  excellent  for  all  schools,)  10c;  Contagious  Diseases  and  how  to  recog- 
nize seven  of  them,  5c.  b.  A  Teacher's  Professional  Library,  No.  408.  c.  The  Reorganized 
School  Playground,  Curtis,  10c.  (No.  40  of  1913  issue.)  d.  The  Teaching  of  Community  Civics, 
Barnard,  No.  650,   10c. 

7.  Annual  reports  of  the  Minnesota  Educational  Association  and  of  the  National  Education 
Association  are  valuable  to  show  the  trend  of  professional  interests  and  outlook.  (The  superin- 
tendent, or  the  school  as  a  whole,  should  have  a  copy.) 

S.  A  comparative  Study  of  the  Public-School  Systems  in  Forty-five  States.  Pamphlet  No. 
124,  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  10c. 

9.  Monthly  copies  of  School  Education.  (Last  year's  work  by  Miss  Avis  Wescott  was  espe- 
cially valuable  for  beginning  and  primary  teachers.) 

B.— BOOKS  TO  SUPPLEMENT  THE   MINNESOTA  SCHOOL  LIBRARY  LIST. 

Note:  Topics  and  pages  refer  to  Miss  Wilson's  Minnesota  School  Library  List. 

Ethics,  p.  8. — Palmer — Ethical  and  Moral  Instruction  in  the  Schools.  Cabot  and  others — A  Course 
in  Citizenship. 

Government,  p.  11. — Dunn — The  Community  and  the  Citizen.  Cabot  and  others — A  Course  in  Citi- 
zenship.    Field  and  Nearing — Community  Civics. 

Vocational  Guidance,  p.  27. — Parsons — Choosing  a  Vocation.  (Illustrates  methods  of  advising 
young  people.  Is  a  fine  companion  to  Davis,  which  excels  in  bibliographies  and  in  sugges- 
tions for  using  the  composition  period  for  vocational  guidance.) 
Collins  Publicity  Service,  Philadelphia.  (Excellent  "Teachers'  Auxiliaries"  issued  on  the  dif- 
ferent vocations.) 
Thrift  Service  Co.,  Rockford,  111.  (Issues  many  booklets  that  would  inspire  children  to  build 
character — especially  Johnson's  story  in  "Thrift  Talk"  issued  by  a  Milwaukee  bank.) 

Household  Economics,  and  Manual  Training. — pp.  30  and  31 — Shelland — Bulletin  No.  42,  and  a 
forthcoming  Bulletin,  State  Department  of  Education,  St.  Paul. 

Drawing,  p.  33. —  (Ref.)  Sargent  and  others — Course  of  Study  in  drawing  in  The  Elementary  School 
Journal,  April,  May,  June,  1916,  and  on  into  the  fall,  1916.  (Ref.)  Bailey — Art  Education. 
(Ref.)  Daniels — School  Drawing  a  Real  Correlation. 

Games,  p.  35. — Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics— One  Hundred  Fifty  Gymnastic  Games. 
Crawford — Dramatic  Games  and  Dances  for  Little  Children.  Crawford  and  Fogg — The 
Rhythms  of  Childhood.  Johnson — Education  by  Play  and  Games.  Newton — -Graded  Games 
and  Rhythmic  Exercises  for  Primary  Schools.  Gomane — Children's  Singing  Games.  De- 
partment of  Interior — Indian  Affairs — Social  plays,  games,  marches. 

Dialogues  and  Plays,  p.  37. — Chubb — Festivals  and  Plays  in  School  and  Elsewhere.  Andrews — 
The  Perfect  Tribute.  (Excellent  for  dramatization.)  Antin — The  Promised  Land.  (Also 
makes  a  fine  patriotic  play.)  Ethical  Culture  School  (New  York) — America  the  Wonderland. 
(A  Patriotic  Festival.)  Freeman — The  Green  Door.  (Makes  a  fine  Thanksgiving  play.) 
Goodlander — Fairy  Plays  for  Children.  Stockton — School  Assemblies;  Winona  Normal 
School  Bulletin.  The  Road  House  to  Ardennes  (Shakespeare  comes  into  the  play).  The  Toy 
Shop.  (Makes  a  fine  Christmas  play.  Children  act  the  parts  of  toys.  Whenever  a  customer 
comes  in,  they  are  decorous.  When  the  shopkeeper  leaves  with  a  customer,  the  toys  dance, 
and  make  merry,  each  being  consistent.)  Van  Dyke — Several  of  his  stories  prove  excellent 
for  dramatization  by  upper-grade  pupils. 

Music,  p.  34,  (Reference-books  only.)  Faulkner — What  We  Hear  in  Music.  Damrosch — Some 
Essentials  in  the  Teaching  of  Music.  Cady — Outlines  of  Music  Education.  Henderson — 
What  is  Good  Music.  Krehbiel — Appreciation  of  Music.  Mason — The  Orchestral  Instru- 
ments and  What  They  Do.     Smith,  C.  V.— 1916  Bulletin  Winona  Normal  School. 

Teachers'  Books — Education,  p.  90.  Ayres — Laggards  in  Our  Schools.  Butler — The  Meaning  of 
Education.  Clodd — The  Childhood  of  the  World.  Fisher— Mothers  and  Children.  Hen- 
derson— Education  and  the  Larger  Life.  King — Rational  Living.  Kirkpatrick — Fundamen- 
tals of  Child  Study.  Klapper — Principles  of  Educational  Practice.  McMurry — Elementary- 
School  Standards.     Spencer — Education.     Huntington — Unconscious  Tuition. 

School  Hygiene,  p.  91. — Bailey — Sure  Pop  and  the  Safety  Scouts.  Shelland — Bulletin  No.  42,  and 
a  forthcoming  Bulletin  issued  by  the  State  Department  of  Education,  St.  Paul.  Trenton, 
N.  J.,  Department  of  Public  Instruction — Teaching  of  Hygiene  and  Safety. 

Story  Telling  and  Collections,  pp.  91-92. — Chisholm — The  Golden  Staircase.  Huckel — -The  Wag- 
ner Opera  Stories  Retold  (each  story  in  a  separate  volume;  beautifully  told). 


302  Minnesota  Manual  for  Teachers. 

Arithmetic,  p.  93. —  (For  teachers  only.) — Belfield  and  Brooks — The  Rational  Elementary  Arith- 
metic (contains  excellent  suggestions  for  ratio  work  applied  to  the  denominate-number  tables). 
Hall — The  Arithmetic  Primer  (preface  only;  excellent  suggestions  for  incidental  number  work). 
Speer — Primary  Book  for  Teachers  (old,  but  excellent  for  ratio  suggestions).  Waldo-Harris — 
First  Journeys  in  Numberland  (very  suggestive  to  the  teacher  in  the  lines  of  games  and  seat- 
work).  Suzzalo — The  Teaching  of  Primary  Arithmetic.  Deming — Number  Stories.  Madden 
and  Turner — Rural  Arithmetic.     Hoyt  &  Peet — Everyday  Arithmetic. 

Language,  p.  93. — Klapper — The  Teaching  of  English.  Manly  and  Powell — A  Manual  for  Writers. 
— Deming — Language  Games  for  all  Grades.  King — Language  Games.  Maxwell,  Johnston, 
and  Barnum — Speaking  and  Writing. 

Geography  and  History,  p.  94. — Booth — Material  on  Geography  which  may  be  obtained  free  or  at 
small  cost  (10c),  American  Library  Association,  Chicago.  Harvest  Scenes  of  the  World — 
International  Harvester  Co.  McMurry — Excursions  and  Lessons  in  Home  Geography.  An- 
drews— The  Counsel  Assigned  (another  story  of  Lincoln).  Committee  of  Eight  Report  to 
the  American  Historical  Association — The  Study  of  History  in  Elementary  Schools  (full, 
bibliography).  Department  of  the  Interior— General  Land  Office  (1908),  Public  Documents; 
Map  of  the  United  States  of  America,  showing  routes  of  Principal  Explorers;  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives (probably  10c).  Dickson— New  American  History  for  Grammar  Schools  (excel- 
lent chapter-end  devices  for  teaching  history).  Hall — European  Beginnings.  Johnson — The 
Teaching  of  History.     Langlois  and  Seignobos — Introduction  to  the  Study  of  History. 

Reading,  p.  94. — Klapper — Teaching  Children  to  Read.  Clark — Interpretation  of  the  Printed 
Page.  Clark — How  to  Teach  Reading  in  Public  Schools  (an  older  book,  but  not  fully  super- 
seded by  the  first  named.)     Everts — Vocal  Expression. 

For    Phonics:    Akin — Word    Mastery.     Libby — The    Key    Method.    Robbins — Phonetics    for 
Schools.     Wescott — The  Teaching  of  Phonics.— The  Teaching  of  Sight  Words. 

Literature  for  Children,  p.  95.  Bunce — Fairy  Tales,  their  Origin  and  Meaning.  MacClintock — 
Literature  in  the  Elementary  School.  Moses — Children's  Books  and  Reading  (similar  to 
Olcott's  Children's  Reading).  American  Library  Economy — Course  of  Study  for  Normal- 
School  Pupils  in  Literature  for  Children. 

Understanding  Children. — Andersen,  Hans  Christian — The  Story  of  My  Life.  Brubaker — Stories 
of  boyhood  in  several  numbers  of  Harper's  Magazine,  1914-15.  Graham — Dream  Days. 
Graham — A  Golden  Age.  Henderson — John  Percyfield.  Holland — Arthur  Bonnicastle. 
Howells  and  Alden — The  Heart  of  Childhood.  Lynn — A  Stepdaughter  of  the  Prairie.  Mor- 
ris, Clara — Little  Jim  Crow,  and  Other  Stories.     Stevenson — Virginibus  Puerisque. 

C— THE  FIRST  TWENTY-FIVE  BOOKS  FOR  A  TEACHER  TO  OWN. 
(Order  not  significant.) 

1.  James — Briefer  Course  in  Psychology,  or  any  standard  psychology. 

2.  Klapper — Principles  of  Educations    Practice,  or  any  standard  pedagogy. 

3.  Kirkpatrick — Fundamentals  of  Child  Study. 

4.  A  medium-sized  dictionary. 

5.  Manly  and  Powell — Manual  for  Writers,  or  an  equally  reliable  "style-book"  for  composition. 
6-9.  One  good  method-book  in  each  of  several  subjects,  as  needed:  Arithmetic.  Drawing.  En- 
glish— Reading,  phonics,  language,  literature,  story-telling.  Ethics.  Geography.  History. 
Industrial  work — General,  cookery,  sewing,  basketry,  wood-work.  Music.  Nature-study. 
Physical  education — Physiology,  Hygiene,  Safety  First.  See  Minnesota  School  Library  List 
and  the  supplementary  list  just  preceding  this. 

10.  McMurry — How  to  Study,  and  Teaching  Children  to  Study. 

11.  One  good  book  on  discipline. 

12.  a.   For  primary  teachers — -a  good  book  on  seat-work. 

b.  For  upper-grade  teachers — a  good  book  on  vocational  guidance. 

13.  One  book  on  children's  reading:  Olcott,  Moses,  ar  MacClintock. 
14-15.  Two  or  three  books  on  understanding  children. 

Hi.   One  book  for  use  in  giving  entertainments. 

17-18.  Two  or  more  volumes  of  poetry,  including  at  icast  one  old-time  classic  (Homer,  Dante, 
Milton,  Shakespeare). 

19-20.  Two  or  more  volumes  of  essays  (Emerson,  Stevenson,  Crothers — The  Gentle  Reader, 
for  example).  , 

21-23.  Two  or  three  standard  novels  to  which  the  teacher  can  return  over  and  over  again,  always 
finding  new  interpretations  of  life.  (Dickens,  George  Eliot,  Oliver  Goldsmith,  Margaret 
Deland,  C.  Hanford  Henderson,  David  Grayson,  F.  Hopkinson  Smith,  etc.,  to  suit  the  read- 
er's taste.) 

24.  Pamphlets  useful  in  teaching,  to  the  extent  of  one  dollar  and  a  half — the  price  of  a  good  book. 

25.  One  good  magazine  (two  to  three  dollars)  for  keeping  up  with  the  times. 


INDEX 


Limited  space  forbids  duplicating  what  is  already  well  indexed  in  "Tabic  oj  Contents"  and  "Diagram" 


Action  commands,  lesson  plan  on,  230-232. 

Accuracy  and  polish  in  English,  trie  problem  of 
grades  seven  and  eight,   14. 

Addition:  an  application  of  counting.  105;  com- 
binations, and  short  column  addition  taught, 
107-110;  mastered,  111;  practice  on  neces- 
sary in  all  grades,  111;  of  fractions,  117;  of 
decimals,  1  19. 

Adjustment:  best  made  through  knowledge, 
right  habit-;,  and  will-power,  9;  demanded  by 
life,  201;  necessary  for  growth,  201. 

Adjustments,  human:  analyzed.  202-203;  pro- 
vide school  problems,  201-202. 

Africa,  in  seventh  grade  geography,   111-143. 

Agricultural  Tribes:  study  of,  171;  basis  of 
national  life,  171. 

Agriculture,  study  of  outlined,  158. 

Aims:  of  education,  9  and  201;  outgrowth  of 
group  life,  9;  parents'  expression  of,  9;  sum- 
marized as  adjustment,  9;  of  art  education, 
197. 

Alaska,  135-II-B. 

Aliquot  parts  of  one  hundred,  122. 

Alphabet  books,  82. 

Alternation:  a  means  of  relieving  a  crowded 
program,  note,  129;  of  adjacent  years  in 
geography  or  history,  or  both,  note-12'J. 

American,  An:  what  it  means  to  be,  and  ac- 
companying obligations  of,  135-II-A,  140, 
173;  ancestry  of,  140,  173,  61.  • 

Animal  husbandry,  159. 

Apostrophe:  in  genitives  or  possessive  nouns, 
35;  lessons  on,  245-251. 

Appreciation:  of  art,  197-199;  of  modern  life 
through  primitive  life,  168;  illustrated  by 
Chicago  history,  1C9;  of  music,  191—196;  "I 
service  and  of  others'  work,  130,  173,  183, 
1S8. 

Area,  of  rectangles  and  triangles,  111-112. 

Arid  land,  reclamation  of,  135,  276. 

Arithmetic:  general  discussion  of,  104;  devel- 
oped from  social  needs,  104,  261-203;  defense 
for  as  a  school  subject,  104;  related  to  thrift, 
105;  fundamental  processes  of  based  on 
counting,  105;  demands  image-building  (or 
seeing)  and  image-holding,  105-110;  uses  of, 
115,  120,  120-125,  123;  changed  to  meet 
social  conditions,  104-105;  accuracy  and 
speed  both  necessary,  120;  mental,  valuable, 
114,  120;  tests  in,  see  Tests;  tvpe-lessons  in, 
262-263;  topics  for  each  grade,  106-125. 

Art  versus  art  materials:  in  race,  190;  in  school, 
190,  198.    . 

Arthurian  legends,  187. 

Asia,  in  seventh  grade  geography,  141-143. 

Assignments,  140,  283-292. 

Association  of  ideas,  14,  30,  291. 

Attention:  basis  of  will  and  hence  of  character, 
12;  involuntary  and  voluntary,  12;  training 
and  testing  of,  13,  21. 

Audience:  needed  by  a  speaker,  17;  given  what 
motives  for  listening,  17;  an  appreciative  one 
secured  by  what  means,  17,  21,  38,  50-51, 
260. 

Australia,  in  seventh  grade  geography,  141-143. 

Banking,  120,  121,  262. 

Barter,  from,  to  Commerce,  145. 

Basis  of  this  Course  of  Study,  201-202. 

Bills:  motive  for  multiplication  practice,  112; 
making  and  receipting  of,  121. 

Blackboard  reading:  for  beginners,  lesson-plans 
illustrating,  230-234;  an  aid  to  spelling,  29, 
34,  40,  87. 

Biography:  an  aid  to  history,  170^172;  giving 
standards  of  success,  157;  helping  in  voca- 
tional guidance,  145. 

Brokerage,  262. 

Brotherhood  of  Americans,  173. 


Causal  thinking.     See  Thinking. 

Character:  building  of.  an  aim  of  education,  58, 
183;  chart  for  school  children.  1S9T190; 
fundamentals  of.  206;  meaning  of,  189;  judg- 
ing of,  189;  teaching  of.   189. 

Charts  used   in  reading;  occasional  need  of,  SO; 

illustrated  by  type  lesson.  234. 
Checking  results.     See  Tests  and  Study. 

Children,  their  duties  and  responsibilities, 
17.s   181, 

China:  fifth  grade  history,  171-172;  why  se- 
lected, 171;  may  be  omitted,  172;  seventh 
grade  geography.  143. 

Citizenship:  meaning  of,  165,  189;  developed 
how,  206;  subdivided.  105-190;  aided  by 
other  school  subjects,  120-122.  133,  135-11- 
A,  130-III-B,  140,  149,  168,  173;  methods  of 
teaching,  165. 

Civics,  177  182:  a  subdivision  of  Citizenship, 
165;  meaning  of.  17s;  outline  for  teacher  of, 
178-181;  related  to  other  school  subjects, 
120-125;  130,  132-note;  177-178;  180;  188; 
295-299. 

Clauses,  53,  54,  68-69. 

Clearness,  in  English.     See  Language. 

Clubs:  organization  of,  181;  work  of,  1S4. 

Coal-mine,  made  on  sand-table,  135-ITK. 

Coherency.     See  Language. 

Commercial  industries.     See  Industry. 

Commission,  122,  262. 

Comparison,  of  quantities,  definite  and  indefi- 
nite, 106. 

Composition.     See  Language. 

Communication.     See  Language. 

Community  life:  outgrowth  of  social  adjust- 
ments, 203;  studied  in  grade  three,  130-131; 
studied  for  ethics,  1S5. 

Consistency,  in  English,  44. 

Constitution:  for  a  club,  1S1;  of  the  United 
States  studied,  178. 

Construction  work.     See  Seat  Work. 

Constructive  reading.     See  Reading. 

Content  and  form:  their  interrelation,  73-78; 
equal  to  thought  and  -expression — a  test  of 
ingenuity  to  keep  the  balance,  20,  28,  44,  78; 
thought  will  correct  form,  238;  feeling  and 
expression,  in  reading,  JS2,  88;  in  music,  191, 
196;  in  letter  writing,  35;  related  to  vocabu- 
lary increase,  45,  92;  to  paragraph  study.  46; 
to  study  of  clauses  and  connectives,  54;  to 
punctuation,  92;  seeing  relationships  more 
valuable  than  memorizing  facts,  though  this 
is  necessary,  137-138,  144,  174.  See,  also, 
Thought  Methods,  and  Motives. 

Continent  study,  outline  for,  illustrated  by 
study  of  South  America,  137. 

Co-operation,  Group  Effort,  or  Team  Work: 
vaguely  seen  to  be  valuable  by  lower  grade 
pupils,  16S;  begun  below  eighth  grade,  53, 
tit),  141,  171,  203-206;  emphasized  in  grade 
eight,  59,  145,  153,  155,  102,  176,  184  185, 
1SS.  196  (orchestra),  252-261;  difference  in 
attitude  from  seventh  to  eighth  grade,  49,  59, 
142,  1SS,  254-261. 

Copying,  in  English  work.     See  Language.  Wr. 

Corrective  exercises,  in  physical  education.  153. 

Cosmopolitanism  versus  provincialism,  38,  97, 
139,  143. 

Counting.     See  Arithmetic. 

Course  of  Study:  basis  for,  201;  clear,  but  why 
not  too  easy,  209;  fosters  initiative,  209;  to 
be  used  daily  and  rellccted  upon,  10,  to  fit 
all  teachers,  207-208;  to  point  the  way  for 
inexperienced  teachers,  and  to  help  others, 
10-11.  108-110,  207-215. 

Criticism,  in  English.     See  Tests  and  Study. 

Crusades,  ls7. 

Cues,  preceding  phonics,  230-237. 


304 


Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 


Current  events:  in  civics,  177,  181;  as  reading 
material,  94;  in  geography,  second  note-132, 
139;  in  ethics,  1S7. 

Debts,  distant,  how  paid,  120,  264. 

Decimal  fractions:  outlined,  119-120;  related 
to  decimal  system,  119. 

Decimal  system,  105:  developed  from  social 
situations,  262;  concretely  taught,  10S,  110; 
placing  of  decimal  point,  119. 

Defense  for  selection  of  school  subject  matter, 
general  discussion  at  opening  of  each  sub- 
ject, and  201-206. 

Denominate  numbers,  106,  107,  107-110,  262. 

Derivatives,  in  dictionary  work,  98. 

Descriptive  writing.     See  Language,  Writing. 

Devices:  place  in  teaching,  279;  relation  to 
methods  and  principles,  279-2S0;  four  rules 
for  using,  2S1-2S3;  needed  in  drill  work,  2S0; 
some  suggested,  2S 1-283.  See  also  discus- 
sions and  type  lessons  on  various  topics. 

Dictation,  in  English.     See  Language,  Writing. 

"Dictionaries":  of  words,  made  by  primary 
pupils,  82;  of  quotations,  by  older  pupils,  37. 

Dictionary:  Use  of,  98-104;  an  aid  to  many 
lessons,  47,  48,  54,  60,  81,  87,  88,  90,  92. 

Direction,  told  by  sun,  moon,  etc.,  _136._ 

Discipline,  meaning  of,  methods  in,  illustra- 
tions of,  problems  in,  295-299. 

Discount,  in  Arithmetic,  121,  262. 

Division:  in  Arithmetic,  105,  112-113,117,  119; 
of  labor,  204:  highest  co-operation,  17S,  188; 
danger  that  workers  lose  sympathy  with 
fellow  workmen.  176;  three  classes  of  work- 
ers, 162-164.      • 

Diurnal  changes,  in  geography,  128. 

Domino  cards,  to  fix  additive  combinations, 
107. 

Drainage  of  Minnesota,  a  lesson  plan  on,  27S- 
279. 

Dramatization:  two  forms  of,  46;  values  of,  46, 
81,  88,  96-97,  170-172,  214;  an  aid  to  all  sub- 
jects; 170-172,  177;  59,  17,  88,  92,  96-97; 
214,  232-241;   132. 

Drawing:  aims  in,  197;  development  of,  195, 
197;  materials  to  use  in,  197-198;  methods 
of  teaching,  198;  aid  to  other  subjects,  197, 
171,  199,  200. 

Dreams,  in  language,  16. 

Dress:  of  people  in  other  lands,  38,  139,  143; 
of  school  children,  to  be  sensible,  189;  indus- 
try of  making,  161-162. 

Drill:  necessary,  14,  17,  87,  280,  287-292;  how 
reduce  to  a  minimum,  92,  see  Content  and 
Form;  variety  and  snap  necessary,  281;  tends 
to  emphasize  form  vs.  content,  280;  sugges- 
tions for,  20,  34,  52,  87,  107-115,  130,  134, 
152;  an  aid  to  reading,  19,  20,  39  and  81,  74, 
82-85,  88,  91,  92,  94. 

Duties  and  tariff,  262. 

Early  withdrawal  from  school,  influences  dis- 
tribution of  school  subject  matter,  115,  263. 

Earning  money,  a  strong  motive  for  leaving 
school,  164. 

Education:  one  phase  of  life,  201;  docs  what 
for  the  individual,  150,  201;  pays,  135-11- 
G,  and  footnote,  164. 

Elementary  Science.     See  Science. 

Ellis  Island,  136. 

English,  interrelation  of  subjects  in,  228-230. 
See  Language,  Reading,  Grammar,  Spelling. 

Eternal  values,  202,  205,  206. 

Ethics.     See  Moral  Training. 

Europe:  in  sixth  grade  geography,  136,  139- 
141;  why  studied,  139;  influence  upon  North 
American  life,  139. 

European  Beginnings  in  America,  166,  173. 

Excursions,  valuable  in  many  subjects,  112, 
130,  150,  184. 

Exploration,  173,  150. 

Expression,  necessary  to  clinch  impression:  58, 
note-153,  note-152;  197;  173;  82,  88;  85. 


Extensive  reading.     See  Reading. 
Evolution,   facts  of,  appeal  to  seventh  grade 
pupils,  150. 

Factors  in  study.     See  Study. 

Faith,  the  foundation  of  group  life,  183. 

Family:  the  fundamental  unit  of  group  life, 
17S-1S1,  203;  members  of,  178-181;  chil- 
dren's duties  towards  other  members  of,  17S- 
181;  study  of  for  moral  training,  1S5,  188. 

Fiction:  value  of,  danger  of,  94,  96;  light  com- 
pared with  classic,  96. 

Fine  Art,  190-200:  an  expression  of  harmony, 
190,  206;  development  of,  206;  divided  into 
three  fields,  190;  each  a  content  subject,  but 
also  a  handmaiden  to  others,  200;  subject 
matter  chosen  from,  190-200,  206-207. 

First  aid,  in  emergencies,  154,  157. 

First  day  of  school,  how  prepare  for,  209. 

Fish  and  Game  Commission,  135-11- F. 

Fishing,  158. 

Foreigners,  Aliens,  Immigrants,  or  Strangers 
in  America:  made  to  feel  at  home  in  America, 
140,  173-174,  175-176,  187-189;  can  give 
school  help,  140. 

Forest  conservation,  135-II-F. 

Form  and  content.     See  Content  and  Form. 

Fuel-buying,  in  arithmetic,  112. 

Fun:  aid  to  good  judgment,  26,  51,  52,  86,  96; 
to  moral  training,  185;  sense  of  humor  chang- 
ing about  grade  four,  86. 

Fundamental  processes  in  arithmetic,  kept 
fresh,  115. 

Fundamentals  of  life — food,  shelter,  clothing 
—204:  means  of  securing,  204-205,   156-164. 

Furnishing  a  home,  a  valuable  bit  of  subject 
matter,  124. 

Fractions,  in  arithmetic,  105,  107,  108,  112, 
115-11S,  262. 

Freedom.     See  Language. 

Games:  an  aid  to  many  subjects,  107,  112,  114; 
30,  87,  14,  20,  26,  32,  39,  52,  46,  68;  153;  184. 

Gardening,  150,  151,  159. 

Genitives,  how  distinguished,  see  lesson-plan 
on,  245-251. 

Geography:  modern  meaning  of,  126;  rank  as 
an  educative  material,  127;  course  outlined, 
127-148;  principles  stated,  tested,  applied, 
139-141;  related  to  other  school  subjects, 
127,  122,  130,  132,  171,  200;  locative  geog- 
raphy, 132,  143,  144;  type  lesson  plans  in, 
271-279. 

Geometric  drawing,  needed  in  mensuration,  121. 

Get-acquainted  lessons,  60. 

Goal  (or  aim)  of  Education,  necessary  as  a 
basis  for  selecting  means  for  its  realization, 
201. 

Good  judgment.     See  Fun  and  Study. 

Good  manners:  an  expression  of  good  morals, 
186;  taught  through  play,  note-152. 

Grammar,  62-71:  limited  to  upper  grades,  62; 
selected  to  fit  needs  of  elementary  pupils, 
63;  terminology  limited,  63;  work  outlined, 
63-71;  time  for,  216-217;  value  of,  11,  12,  39, 
53,  73,  92. 

Graphs,  interpretation  of,  123. 

Great  Basin,  lesson  on,  276-278. 

Great  Lakes,  related  to  Minnesota,  136-III-C. 

Great  Men,  Industries,  etc.,  studied  in  grade 
eight,  57,  145,  157. 

Greece:  in  fifth  grade  history,  171-172;  gave 
the  world  what,  172;  myths  valuable  in 
study  of  Greek  life,  172. 

Group  life:  related  to  that  of  individual,  no 
conflict  in  best  welfare  of  both,  178,  202. 
See  Co-operation. 

Habit  formation:  the  basis  of  rigflt  living,  183; 
how  initiated,  183;  how  fixed,  183;  of  right 
sort,  i.  e.  of  work  vs.  indolence,  145. 

Have  something  to  say.  See  Language,  Talk- 
in  K- 

Health  inspection,  152. 


Index. 


305 


Hectograph:  recipe  for,  2S7;  directions  for  us- 
ing, 287. 

Hindu  numerals,  10S-110. 

History,  Kio— 1 77 :  aim  of,  165;  course  in,  how 
unified,  105;  course  outlined,  16G— lf>7;  closely 
related  to  other  subjects,  132-note,  135-II-A, 
139,  172,  158,  166-167,  172,  185-188,  200; 
alternation  of  with  geography,  or  by  years, 
note-129. 

Home:  school  and,  140;  reading  at,  encouraged, 
81,  S9;  buying,  values  of,  124;  making  of  a: 
150-151;  124;  178-180;  188. 

Homes  in  other  lands,  fourth  grade  geography 
material,  38,  97,  132,  139,  142. 

Household  tinkering,  157. 

How  to  study.     See  Study. 

Humor.     See  Fun. 

Hunting:  tribes,  170;  related  to  industry,  158. 

Hygiene,  151-154;  130,  150-151,  178. 

Idea,  distinguished  from  word,  image  or  pic- 
ture, 65.  ' 

Ideals,  kept  alive,  not  ridiculed,  61. 

Image:  building,  seeing,  getting,  holding,  neces- 
sary in  arithmetic,  105,  108,  112,  115;  re- 
lated  to  language  and  literature,  200,   243. 

Imagination  needed,  205,  120,  170,  192,  1S3. 

Imitation,  a  means  of  learning,  106. 

Immaterial  world:  205-206;  meaning  of,  206; 
subjects  growing  out  of,  206;  citizenship, 
165-190;  fine  art,  190-200. 

Immigrants.      See  Foreigners. 

Immigration,  136-III-B  and  footnote. 

Imperative  sentence  plan  of  teaching  reading. 
See  Action-commands. 

India,  143. 

Indian  life  and  Indians:  aim  of  study  of,  re- 
lated to  present  day  problems,  not  to  be 
over-emphasized,  16S;  related  to  many  top- 
ics, 170-171;  15S-159;  135-II-G. 

Infancy,  human;  lengthening  period  of,  156; 
value  of,  156. 

Individual:  relation  of  to  the  group,  202,  170, 
171,  172,  178,  188. 

Individuality:  fostered  in  grade  seven,  50-52, 
252-258,  54,  93-95,  102,  141-143,  150,  162- 

163,  174-175,  1S7-1SS;  of  the  teacher  urged, 
10-11. 

Industrial  Arts,  Industries,  and  Industry:  156- 

164,  203-205;  three  values  of  as  school  subject 
matter,  156;  relation  of  to  science,  125;  field 
of  outlined,  158-164;  aid  to  choice  of  a  voca- 
tion, 158-164;  commercial  industries,  122, 
141-145,  162-163,  204;  to  aid  other  subjects, 
112-120;  178-180;  130-141;  1S6-18S;  200. 

Industrial  Geography,  127,  144. 

Inflection:  in  reading,  IS,  19,  20,  82,  85,  88, 
92,  94. 

Initiative:  for  teachers,  10-1 1 ;  for  children,  173. 

Insurance,  123,  262,  267-271. 

Interest,  in  arithmetic,  121,  262,  265-267. 

Interdependence  of  men  and  of  nations — In- 
ternationalism, 131,  139,  143-1,  fine  print- 
144,  145,  166,  171,  177. 

International  date  line,  143-0. 

Inventions  and  Inventors,  204,  186. 

Inventory,  how  to  make,  121. 

Investments,  in  arithmetic,  123,  262. 

Irrigation  projects,  181;  miniature  farm,  135- 
II-K. 

Japan,  143. 

Judging  worths.     See  Study. 

Judgment,  cultivated,  174. 

Keeping  accounts,  121. 

Labor:  problems  in,  204;  division  of,  162,  176, 
178,  188;  success  in  various  sorts  of,  158-164, 
Language: 

General  discussion  of:  communication  nec» 
essary  for  group  life,  11,  203,  228,  defense 
for  teaching,  11,  44;  phases  of  and  their 
interrelation,     11-12,     228-230;     develop- 


ment  of,    11,   203-207,   228-230;   and    see 
Stages  of  child-development;  errors,  correc- 
tion of,  15,  20,  23   2  1,  26,  32,  33,  39,  52,  61. 
Oral   Language:   Listening  and  Talking,   11, 

12,  44,  228  230. 
Listening:  involuntary  and  voluntary,  12,  19, 
25,  228;  with  eyes  as  well  as  ears,  30; 
values  of,  12,  13,  24,  37,  228;  means  em- 
ployed in,  13,  19,  37.  42,  56.  nil  -196; 
motives  given  for,  15,  16,  19,  25,  42, 
56  57;  see  .1  uJicnce. 
Talking:  principles  of,  13,  14,  17,  19,  25,  31, 
43  44,  56,  93;  relation  of  to  reading,  7.".,  s", 
93,  240-241;  aids  to,  12,  16,  17,  32,  44, 
113,  260;  aims  of  in  different  grades,  17, 
19  and  14,  26,  30,  38,  43,  51,  58. 
Written  Language:  Listening  with  the  eye 
(reading)  and  Talking  with  the  pen  (writ- 
ing or  written  composition)  needed,  I  1,  12, 
15,  44,  72,  132.  203-207,  228-230.  See 
Reading. 
Writing:  principles  of,  11-12,  13,  14,  17,  19, 
25,  27,  31,  33,  43,  44,  50,  230;  need  of 
drill  in,  see  Drill,  and  Content  and  Form; 
aims  of  in  the'different  grades,  18,  20,  27-28, 
33,  39-40,  115,  46-47,  52,  59-63,  251-258; 
subjects  and  motives  for,  28,  30,  31,  33, 
35,  39,  40,  46-48,  53,  54,  59-63,  255-261; 
copying,  22,  34,  41;  dictation,  its  values 
and  dangers,  21,  28,  34,  41;  descriptive 
writing,  30,  31-32,  37,  39,  253-255;  letter- 
writing,  35,39,  47,  49,  130,  230;  narrative 
writing,  39,  53-55,  255-201,  59-63. 
Latitude  and  Longitude:  type  lesson  on,  271- 

276. 
"Law  of  signs,"  114. 

Leisure,  use  of,  an  ethical  problem,  183. 
Lesson-planning:    form    for    shown,    241-251; 
subdivisions  of  one  unit  illustrated,  115-118, 
245-251;  type  lessons  shown,  230-279. 
Letter  writing.     See  Language,  Writing. 
Linear  measure,  107. 
Liquid  measure,  107. 
Listening.     See  Language,  Writing. 
Literature:  meaning  of,  199;  test  of,  values  of, 
199-200,  and   15-16;  an  aid  to  all  subjects: 
to  language,  19,  42,  52,  199-200;  to  reading 
73,   199-200;  to  history,  167,  170-172,   177, 
200;  to  geography  and  nature  study,  200;  to 
moral  training,  185-187,  200;  to  drawing  and 
music,    200;    kinds   of    to  use,  167,  200,  and 
15,  16;  19;  25,  26,  28,  83;  30,  86,  87,  170,  171; 
37,  38;  43,  92;  50,  94;  58,  61,  96;  references 
for  material  in,  200,  301-302. 
Locative  geography.     See  Geography. 

Manufacturing,  161. 

Map:  making  and  interpreting,  130,  13S; 
sketching  vs.  drawing,  2d  note-132.  136,  140, 
142;  study  of,  Problems  I  A  and  B  134,  138, 
142,  271;  values  of,  142. 

"Material  World,"  125,  120,  14S,  151,  150,  164, 
203-205. 

Materials  of  Education,  201-202,  10. 

Measure:  Dry,  Liquid,  Weight,  107;  Surface, 
111-112. 

Measuring  results  in  education,  10,  292-295. 

Merchantry,  119,  122,  163,  262. 

Methods  in  education:  of  more  interest  to- 
teachers  than  patrons,  10;  thought  vs.  sym- 
bol, see  Thought  Methods;  in  geography, 
126,  144;  in  moral  training — direct  and  in- 
direct, 184—185;  in  music,  192;  in  drawing, 
198;  in  detail  for  various  grades  and  sub- 
jects, 46,  47,  59-60,  64-71,  106-118,  122, 
124-125,  144,  169,  230-279;  see  Motives. 

Mining,  161. 

Minnesota,  133.  135-130,  145,  181. 

Mississippi  river,  dredging  of,  135-II-F. 

Monotones:  in  speech,  18,  20;  in  music,  192,  ff. 

Moral  Training  and  Ethics,  183-190:  each  de- 
fined, 183;  methods  of  teaching,  184;  related 
to  discipline,  183  and  295-299;  children's  ob- 
ligations, 185;  thoughtlulness  of  elders,  note- 
153,  179;  N.  E.  A.  report  on,  183-184;  moral 


306 


Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 


traits  desired  by  all,  183,  189-190;  related 
to  all  subjects,  120,  124-125,  130,  132,  148- 
149,  153,  170-172,  174,  176,  178,  186-190. 

Motives:  for  listening,  13;  content  to  motivate 
form,  28,  29,  45,  46,  92,  152,  153;  230;  sug- 
gested for  use  in  different  grades  and  sub- 
jects: (1)  74,  77;  (2)  17,  21,  23,  81-S2,  107- 
110;  (3)  21,  25,  2S,  111-112,  130,  S4  and  237- 
241;  (4)  30,  32,  33,  35  and  230,  87,  8S,  112, 
132,  170;  (5)  38,  39,  40,  42,  89,  130,  135-11- 
J;  (6)  42-48,  137,  230,  91-92;  (7)  50-54,  60, 
120,  177,  252-25S;  (8)  56-59,  61-62,  94,  96- 
97,  144,  176,  258-261. 

Mumbling,  to  prevent,  39. 

Multiplication,  105,  111,  117-119. 

Music,  191-196:  defined,  191;  aims  in  study  of, 
191;  voice  best,  191;  begun  early,  191-192; 
cultivation  of  taste  in,  191-196;  reading  of, 
193-196;  instrumental  in  class,  196;  musical 
forms  in,  classified,  195-196;  theory  of,  195- 
196;  allied  to  literature,  200;  an  aid  to  moral 
training,  185. 

Mythology:  developed  how,  205;  basis  of  his- 
tory and  literature,  167;  see  Literature. 

Narration  or  Narrative  Writing.  See  Lan- 
guage, Writing. 

Nationalism:  the  basis  of  organization  of  his- 
tory work,  166;  the  culmination  of  work  in 
citizenship,  177;  how  related  to  interests  of 
individuals,  187-188;  see  Co-operation  and 
Language,  General  Discussion. 

National  Government,  studied  with  state  gov- 
ernment in  Civics,  180-181. 

Nature  study,  148-151:  relation  of  to  science, 
14S,  205;  to  other  subjects,  14S-149,  126, 
31-32,  107-112,  200;  three  values  of,  as  a 
school  subject,  148-149;  books  on,  and  top- 
ics in,  to  fit  all  grades,  149-150;  methods  of 
treating  topics  in  and  why,  150-151. 

Newspaper:  one  made  by  grade  eight,  258; 
reading  of,  in  history,  177. 

North  America:  the  main  work  of  grade  five, 
133;  studied  for  information,  not  principles 
in  grade  five,  note-133;  problems  on,  134— 
135;  reviewed  in  grade  six  for  comparison 
with  South  America  and  the  discovery  of 
geographic  principles,  137;  drainage  of,  134 
and  278. 

Notation,  105,  107,  10S-110,   111. 

Notes:  making  of,  business  need  of,  121,  123, 
262. 

Note-taking  and  Note  books,  53,  150,  173,  199. 

Numeration.     See  Notation. 

Obedience,  necessary  in  group  life,  179. 

Observation:  the  basis  of  all  learning,  203;  in 
language,  28,  32. 

Oral  Language.     See  Language. 

Oral  Reading.      See  Reading. 

Organization:  the  main  work  of  grade  six,  42, 
44;  helped  by:  "problem"  method  in  history, 
173;  nature  study,  150;  seatwork,  2S5-292; 
orderliness  in  beginning  a  story,  grade  two, 
20;  topical  recitations,  grade  five,  39;  main 
points,  fallacies,  supplementing  thought  in 
reading,  grade  five,  90;  association  of  ideas, 
30,  and  grouping,  begun  in  grade  four,  150; 
naming  central  ideas,  237-241;  teacher's 
problem  in  securing,  285. 

Origin  of  school  subject-matter,  203-206. 

Paragraphing:  necessary  for  written  language, 
11;  lii-gun  in  grade  five,  39;  suggestions  for 
teaching,  42,  46  and  53. 

Parks,  children's  rights  in  and  obligations  to- 
wards, 180,  186. 

Parliamentary  practice,  simple  forms  of,  182. 

Partnership,  without  time,  121,  262. 

Parts  of  speech,  kinds,  uses,  inflection  of,  69,  71. 

Paste,  several  recipes  for,  286. 

Patriotism.  See  Co-operation,  Nationalism, 
Foreigners,  Citizenship,  Geography  (144,  145), 
and  Language. 

Pencil  and  Penholder  cases,  209. 


Penmanship:  motivated  by  language  (11)  and 
other  school  subjects  (130,  e.  g.);  tests  for, 
36,  41,  293;  time  on  program,  216-217; 
progress  noted  throughout  the  grades,  "Dia- 
gram" and  18,  22,  23,  29,  35,  36,  41,  48,  54, 
62;  period  of  natural  interest  in,  41,  295; 
devices  and  suggestions  in,  29,  36,  41. 

Percentage:  relation  to  decimal  fractions,  and 
fundamental  operations,  105,  120;  teaching 
of,  120-122. 

Personality:  of  teachers,  10,  207-215,  298;  of 
pupils,  how  developed,  44,  143-M,  156-164, 
183-190. 

Phases  of  life:    physical,  social,  immaterial,  201. 

Philosophy  of  life:  gained  by  observation  and 
thinking,  206,  201-206;  related  to  literature, 
148,  200. 

Phonics:  an  aid  to  reading,  11,  73,  78,  81,  85, 
87,  92,  229;  when  introduced,  78;  cues,  cau- 
tions, work  of  grade  one,  79;  work  of  grade 
two,  82;  suggestions  for,  79,  80,  SI,  S2,  87, 
92,  100;  words  which  violate  laws  of,  87; 
books  for  teachers  on,  302. 

Phrases,  in  grammar,  6S. 

Physical  education,  151-155:  related  to  science, 

126,  151 ;  to  other  subjects,  151,  153;  includes 
more  than  body,  152;  course  in,  considers 
what,  152;  means  of  securing  best  results  in, 
152-154;  value  of  as  a  school  subject,  151-152; 
phases  of,  151-154;  exercises  in,  grouped  by 
grades,  155;  exercises  to  meet  three  aims,  155. 

Physical  Geography,  facts  of,  127,  131,  137, 
140,  143,  144. 

Physiography,  meaning  of,  127. 

Pictures,  value  and  methods  of  using,  31,  185, 
197-199,  2S9-290. 

Play,  152-153:  values  of,  152;  in  home  life.  129. 

Poetrv:  teachers  must  know,  13;  loved  by  chil- 
dren, 16,  19,  25,  33,  39,  43,  61,  200;  commit- 
ted, 39,  46;  made  by  pupils,  33,  61. 

Poise  or  self-control,  note-152. 

Population  of  eastern  and  western  U.  S.  com- 
pared, 135-II-C. 

Posture:  one  phase  of  good  expression,  worked 
for  in  all  grades,  19,  20,  36,  49,  63,  152,  153, 
190. 

Pride:  of  right  sort,  140;  related  to  work  done, 
189. 

Primitive  life:  valuable  in  helping  pupils  ap- 
preciate or  interpret  modern  life,  not  to  be 
over-emphasized,  15S,  166,   16S,   170,   179. 

Principle,  method,  device,  relationship  of,  202, 
279-292. 

Principles:  of  good  speaking  and  writing,  13- 
14,  39,  43,  56;   of  geography,   140-141,  and 

127,  131,  137,  143,  144;  of  seatwork,  79,  285. 
Print,  learned  from  the  beginning,  230-237. 
Printing-press,  use  for,  234. 

"Problem"  or  "Project"  method  of  teaching: 
explained  and  illustrated,  133,  134,  136; 
uses  and  values  of,  53,  126-127,  131-134, 
144,  157,  171,  181;  some  necessary  facts  thus 
omitted,  137;  some  "problems"  suggested, 
109-110,  112,  113,  119,  120,  134-136,  138, 
139,  140,  142-144,  147-148,  157,  171,  173- 
175.  17S-181. 

"Product"  maps,  138. 

Professions,  the,  163-164. 

Profit  and  loss,  121,  262. 

Program:  temporary,  for  first  day  of  school, 
210;  principles  of  making,  217-224;  samples 
of  for  all  grades,  220-224;  time  allotment  of 
subject-matter  on,  216-217. 

Provincialism,  can  be  eradicated,  see  Cosmo- 
politanism. 

Public  education,  a  civic  question,  180-181. 

Public  property,  attitude  towards,  care  of,  etc., 
186. 

Punctuation,  an  aid  to  reading  and  writing, 
11,  73,  82,  88,  '.12. 

Pupils:  rights  and  duties  of,  in  school,  180;  on 
the  street,  in  parks,   180-186. 

Purpose  of  the  Course  of  Study,  9-11  and  Pre- 
faces. 

Puzzles,  good  in  arithmetic,  114. 


Index. 


307 


Questions,  thought  vs.  fact,  137. 

Quotation  marks,  37,  41. 

Quotations,  values  of  in  collecting,  37,43,51,97. 

Raindrop,  story  of,  133. 

Reading:  aids  to,  12,  30-37,  73,  78,  79,  SO,  84- 
85,  87,  90,  92,  94,  95,  98,  225,  229,  233-237, 
283,  287—292;  appreciative,  artistic,  or  con- 
structive, 72-73,  S4,  86,  97;  discussion  of,  in 
general,  12,  71,  229:  kinds  of,  13,  72,  73.  97; 
mere  art,  science,  fine  art  of,  12;  extensive, 
intensive,  80,  81,  84,  86,  S9,  90,  91,  93,  94, 
96;  prerequisites  for,  12,  73,  78,  88,  93,  95, 
96,  229;  discussion  for  each  grade,  73.  80, 
83,  86,  88,  90,  93,  95;  forming  the  reading 
habit,  31,  58,  72-73,  86,  89,  93,  94,  95,  96, 
200,  231;  lesson  plans  in,  230-245;  methods 
and  devices  for  teaching.  74,  75.  76.  77,  78, 
232-237,  280-283;  oral  and  silent  reading,  12, 
72,  75,  76,  77,  78,  81,  84,  S5,  86,  89,  90,  93, 
94,  95,  96,  204,  229:  each  aids  the  other.  229; 
related  to  "talking"  and  "listening"  in  lan- 
guage, 72,  93;  correcting  faults  in,  81.  84, 
85,  87,  91,  92,  98,  241-245;  material  to  use 
for,  87;  motives  for,  in  each  grade,  (1)  75, 
77,  (2)  81,  (3)  84,  (4)  86,  (5)  89,  90,  (6)  90, 
91,  (7)  94,  95,  (8)  96,  97;  taste  formed,  81, 
89,  93,  94,  95,  96;  tests  for  efficiency  in,  293; 
texts:  how  classify  and  use,  79-80;  how  se- 
lect, 225-226;  number  to  use,  80,  S6;  what 
to  do  if  too  difficult,  89;  if  too  few,  80;  why 
use  real  literature,  73,  200;  "Thought"  meth- 
ods in,  74-78,  230,  237;  value  of,  12,  72,  95, 
229. 

Reciting:  from  memory,  52;  from  notes,  39; 
for  others,  30. 

Reference  reading,  48,  57,  90,  92,  141,  173. 

Relation  seeing:  in  arithmetic,  105,  107,  112; 
between  rights  and  duties,  178-181;  of  pres- 
ent to  past  life,  170,  175;  of  men  to  one  an- 
other, 205-206,  and  see  Co-operalion. 

Representative  work:  meaning  of,  media  for, 
value  of,  note  2-132;  leaf-houses  a  form  of, 
129. 

Results:  in  education,  desired  by  public,  to  be 
measured  by  teachers,  10;  in  daily  work  vs. 
process  or  growth,  198;  to  be  expected  by 
end  of  grade  eight,  176,  and  end  of  each  sub- 
ject. 

Review:  necessary,  121,  142;  conducted  by  new 
"problems,"  173;  topics  for,  177. 

Rhetoric,  needed  by  the  race,  11. 

Rhythm:  naturally  loved,  16,  43,  229;  in  music, 
191,  196;  an  aid  to  "listening,"  19. 

Right  habits.     See  Moral  Training. 

Roman  Numerals,   106,   108-110. 

Rome,  171-172,  gave  what  to  the  world,  172. 

Room  or  school  library,  81,  89. 

Roots  and  powers,  121. 

Rote  songs,  192-196. 

Rune  stone,  Kensington  or  Minnesota,  167. 

"Safety-first"  precautions,  151,   154,   155,  185. 

Sand-table  and  related  representative  work, 
129-3-C,  130-A,  132,  135-II-K,  13S,  157, 
172,  173. 

Sanitation.  130,  152-155,  157,  1S0-181. 

Sault  St.  Marie,  canal,  136-III-E. 

Saving:  means  of,  121;  keeping  account  of,  123. 

School:  function  of,  201,  202;  responsibility  of, 
201-202;  benefits  of  to  be  made  known  to 
child,  180;  place  of  in  character  development, 
202,  and  see  "Co  operation";  character  chart, 
189-190;  some  important  laws  for,  299-300; 
value  of  plays  in,  59,  177;  training  in  art  in, 
190. 

School  subject-matter:  origin  of,  203-206;  re- 
lated to  human  adjustments  in  the  three 
"worlds,"  203-206,  11-200;  and  "Diagram"; 
a  means  to  an  end,  10,  206,  207,  209;  distri- 
bution of,  206;  suggested  time  allotment  of, 
215-217;  selection  of,  206-207;  a  unit  of,  sep- 
arated for  convenience  only,  but  to  be  kept 
in  right  relation,  207. 

Science:    developed   how,    125,    205,    203-206; 


place  and  kind  of  in  school,  125-126;  why 
elementary  phase  of  chosen.  126;  elementary 
(science;  in  place  of  nature  study  in  grade 
six  or  below,  150,  151;  relation  of  to  indus- 
try, 125. 

Script:  used  on  blackboard  in  preference  to 
hand  printing,  why.  77;  easy  for  child  to  pass 
from,  to  print.  230-234;  use  of  in  reading 
lessons,  23(1  234. 

Seasonal  changes,  outlined  in  primary  geogra- 
phy, 128-129. 

Seating  chart,  prepared  for  first  day  of  school, 
209. 

Seat  Work:  materials  for,  2N6-2.S7;  place  and 
value  of,  283,  285-292;  principles  for  select- 
ing, 79,  285;  suggestions  for.  18,  22,  79,  81, 
82,  88-90,  95,  107,  108,  130,  132,  231-237, 
241-247,  283,  287-292. 

Self-confidence,  what  youth  contributes  to  the 
race,  61. 

Self-consciousness,  to  be  tided  over,  15,  20,  90. 

Self-realization:  means  what,  paragraphs  1,  3, 
4  and  following  201,  202;  attained  only 
through  co-operation,  126,  183,  201-202; 
aided  by  all  school  subject-matter  vitally 
taught — see  School  subject-matter. 

Sense-training,  108-110,  191-196. 

Sentence  feeling  and  structure,  11,  19,  22,  24, 
27,  34,  36,  40,  49,  51,  53,  54,  65-69,  229. 

Serving  vs.  being  served,  202. 

Shorthand,  a  sort  of,  invented  for  note-taking, 
value  of,  misuse  of,  62. 

Silent  reading.     See  Reading. 

Social  appreciation,  imagination  and  interpre- 
tation, needed  by  all,  183. 

"Social  world,"  203-204. 

Sound  concepts^  worked  for  in  music,  192. 

South  America,  136-139. 

Special  days:  to  be  celebrated  in  primary 
grades,  167-16S;  illustrations  of  variations 
in  point  of  emphasis  for,  167-16S;  give  mo- 
tive for  study  of  famous  men  and  women, 
167. 

Specific  aims,  one  factor  in  study,  illustrations, 
237-241. 

Speech:  needed  for  communication,  11-12,  22S- 
229;  loved  for  its  own  sake,  22S;  a  sign  of 
culture  or  lack,  13;  see  Language,  oral  and 
written,  and  Reading,  oral  and  silent. 

Spelling:  an  aid  to  reading,  12,  92,  229;  "One 
Hundred  Demons"  in,  261;  means  of  better- 
ing, 23,  29,  36,  41,  4S,  54,  62,  130,  2S7-291, 
292;  necessary  for  written  language,  11; 
time  allotment  of  on  program,  18,  216-217; 
standard  tests  for  ability  in,  293. 

Sports,  three  purposes  of,  153. 

Square  measure,  developed,  111-112. 

Stages  of  child  development,  "Diagram"  and 
202-207:  parents  and  teachers  must  know, 
183;  subject-matter  must  fit,  "Diagram"  and 
207;  a  few  characteristics  of,  noted  by  grades: 
1st  grade,  14,  16,  17,  75,  76,  127-130,  150, 
155-157,  158,  160,  166-16S,  178,  198,  200, 
261,  263;  3d  grade,  19,  SI,  107,  127-130,  150, 
155-157,  15S-160,  166-168,  178,  19S,  200, 
263;  3d  grade,  25,  83,  85,  127-130,  150,  153, 
155-157,  15S-160,  166-168,  178-181,  L98, 
200,  263;  4th  grade,  30,  32,  33,  86-88,  132, 
150,  153,  155-157,  158-160,  161,  166-167, 
170,  178-181,  186,  198,  200,  263;  5th  grade, 
37-38,90,115,  150,  153,  155-157,  15.S-160, 
161-162,  166-167,  171,  173,  178-182,  186- 
1S7,  198,  200,  251-260,  263;  6th  grade,  42, 
43,  92,  137,  139,  140,  150,  153,  155-1 57.  158- 
160,  161-162,  166-167,  173,  178-182,  198, 
200,  251-260,  263;  7th  grade,  49,  50,  53,  94, 
141,  150,  155-157,  15S-160,  162-163,  166- 
167,  174,  17S-1S2.  188,  198,  200,  251-260, 
263;  8th  grade,  55,  56,  57,  59-62,  94,  96, 
123-125,  144,  150,  155-157,  158-160,  161- 
164,  166-167,  176,  17S-1S2,  188-189,  198, 
200,  251-260,  263. 

Standards.     See  Tests,  and  Study. 

State  and  national  government  studied,  180- 
181. 


308 


Minnesota  Course  of  Study. 


Statistics:  interpretation  of,  123;  securing  of, 

113. 
Steel  industry,  135-II-D. 
Stocks  and  bonds,  123. 
Store-keeping,  107,  111,  163,  262. 
Story-telling,  13,  16. 
Struggle  for  U.  S.  territory,  174. 
Study:  children  taught  to,  45,  46,  52-53,  283- 
2S5;  power  of,  emphasized,  140. 
Steps  in  the  process,  9,    123-124,   283-285: 
what  each  step  demands,  284;  which  best 
done  in  various  grades,  285;  amount  to  do 
in  grade  six,  45-46. 
Aims,  general  and  specific,  9,  83,  84,  85,  89, 

90,  90-92,  133-note,  237-242,  285. 
Planning  the  solution:  judging  values,  9,  10, 
90,  144,  200,  283-292;  using  a  library  and 
reference      books,      94;         supplementing 
thought,  84,  237-241,  284. 
Solving  the  problem,  doing  the  task,  9,  5S; 

relation  of  to  character  building,  284. 
Checking  the  result,  9,  10,  5S,  112,  114,  141, 

143,  284,  2S5,  292. 
Applying  the  facts  learned:  9,  10,  2S3-285, 
111,   141-143,    156-190,    197;   illustrations 
of  found  in  different  subjects:  paragraph 
study,  42;  reading,  73,  89-90,  90-91,  92; 
map  work,  140;  arithmetic,  123-124,  263- 
266,    283-285;    geography    for    grade    six, 
140;  nature  study,  149;  literature,  73,  200; 
seat  work,  285-292. 
Subtraction,  105,  110,  111,  117,  119. 
Success:  won  by  effort,  not  luck,  50,  58;  char- 
acteristics  of,    157;    personal   characteristics 
needed  for  success  in  different  occupations, 
15S-164. 
Supervision,  aim  of  and  need  of,  10. 
Supplementing   thought,   illustrated,   84,    237- 

240. 
Symbols.     See  Content  and  Form.     See  Thought 
Methods. 

Talking.     See  Language. 

Taxation  and  Taxes,  123,  180,  262. 

Teachers:  a  zealous  group,  208;  book  list  for, 
300-302;  classified  according  to  experience, 
208-209;  needs  partially  met  by  course  of 
study,  20S-209;  classified  according  to  work 
being  done,  209-215;  suggestions  to,  209- 
215;  "methods"  learned  from  life,  202;  special 
problems  met:  in  reading,  76-77,  79-80,  83, 
87,  89,  90,  94,  95,  292-295;  in  home-reading, 
81,  84,  86,  89;  in  language,  13,  15,  20,  29,45, 
49,  52,  55;  in  nature  study,  148;  in  citizen 
making,  184, 189;  in  drawing,  197-199;  rights 
and  duties  of,  180. 

Teacher's  Pledge,  A,  8. 

Teaching:  a  profession  vs.  a  vocation,  10;  a 
series  of  "study"  problems,  9-10. 

Teaching  children  to  study.     See  Study. 

Team  work.       See  Co-operation. 

Tests:  standardized,  292-295;  good,  though  not 
standardized:  "what  to  expect"  at  the  close 
of  many  grade  subjects;  some  suggestions 
found,  for  arithmetic,  106,112,  113,  114,  121, 
125,  292-295;  for  English,  is,  41,  14,  20,  21, 
27,  34,  38-40,  46-47,  52,  55-57,  260,  81,  84, 
85,  88,  90,  293;  for  all  situations,  9,  10,  284, 
285. 

Text  books:  possible  to  use  anv  with  this  Course, 
79-80,  89,  134;  selection  of,  84,  224-227;  use 
of  discarded,  287-292. 

Thinking:  how  developed,  205;  causal  thinking: 
begun  in  grade  four,  30;  from  cause  to  effect, 
30,  127,  140,  141,  143,  149,  174;  from  effect 
to  cause,  127,  143,  149,  173;  illustrations  of 
how  aided,  113,  115,  127-148,  173-174,  197, 
200,  229,  237,  238  241  ;  logical  thinking,  done 
in  all  upper-grade  work,  q.  v.  11-200. 

Thought  methods:  explained,  73-78;  best  for 
beginning  reading,  78,  93;  necessary  for  ad- 
vanced grades,  93;  drills  often  needed  in,  84, 


87;  illustrations  of,  137-138;  29,  34,  40,  87; 
74,  81,  237-241,  82,  88;  20,  28,  44,  45,  46,  54, 
78,  92,  255-261.     See  Content  and  Form. 

Thrift:  meaning  of,  value  of  learning,  for  all 
grades,  164;  developed  from  social  situations, 
105,  111,  120,  121,  123,  262;  helped  by  sev- 
eral studies,  156-164.  171,  179-F,  186-188, 
104-124;  plans  for,  footnote  120,  123. 

Time  Allotment  of  subject-matter  on  daily  pro- 
gram, 215-217. 

Topical  recitations:  43,  44,  53. 

Transportation:  in  geography,  132;  developed 
from  race  need  of  exchange,  204. 

Tree-Dwellers,  suited  to  lower  grades,  168. 

United  States:  geography  of,  135,  144-148; 
history  of,  173-177,  ISO;  what  different  peo- 
ples have  brought  to,  38,  61,  139-140,  171, 
173,  174,  175,  187,  188;  making  strangers 
feel  at  home  in,  140,  173-174,  1S7-189;  table 
of  money  of,  107. 

Unity:  of  life,  202;  of  the  three  phases  of  life, 
206-207;  necessary  in  national  life,  18S;  seen 
in  history  course,  165-167;  needed  in  lan- 
guage work,  44-47. 

Use:  the  test  of  knowledge,  54,  284;  of  room 
materials  valuable,  32. 

"Verbal  no  thoroughfares,"  81,  91. 

Verification  or  checking,  a  step  in  study,  283- 
285:  see  Study;  defense  for  learning  in  school, 
284. 

Vocabulary:  need  or  value  of,  11,  12,  37,  39, 
45,  73,  SS,  92;  increased  in  each  grade,  37,45, 
53,  59,  88,  92,  98;  some  suggestions  for  se- 
curing, 13,  14,  25,  30,  37,  40,  43,  45,  51,  53,  59, 
80,  83,  87,  98,  200,  228,  242-243,  251-252. 

Vocalization  (in  reading),  value  and  danger  of, 
229. 

Vocational  choice:  postponed  with  the  advance 
of  civilization,  156;  must  be  prepared  for, 
156,  164. 

Vocational  guidance:  distinguished  from  voca- 
tional choice  and  training,  164;  the  import- 
ant feature  of  grade  eight,  164,  145,  53-note, 
57,  58,  59,  61,  96,  123,  135-II-G,  144-145, 
149-151,  152-155,  156  last  topic  and  note 
following,  156-164,  176,  180,  188-190;  some- 
times needed  below  grade  eight,  94,  158-164; 
subjects  to  aid:  history,  170;  geography,  144— 
145;  civics,  178;  moral  training,  188;  charac- 
teristics of  success  for  each  industry,  156- 
164;  reading,  96-97;  language,  57-60;  arith- 
metic, 122-125;  nature  study,  150- 1. 51. 

Voice  variation:  18,  20,  81,  82,  84,  85,  88,  90; 
testing  in  music,  195-196;  training  in  music, 
191-196. 

"What  to  expect,"  given  at  the  end  of  each 
grade  in  Language,  Reading,  Geography, 
History,  Drawing.  See  each  subject.  Also 
pages  27,  64-65,  and  104-125. 

"White  collar  jobs,"  145. 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  Pres.,  speech  to  immigrants 
quoted  and  abstracted,  61. 

Winter,  preparation  for  by  individuals  and 
communities,  128-129. 

Word-calling,  accuracy  in,  when  demanded  and 
when  conquered,  85. 

Word-drill:  need  of,  74,  79,  82.  83,  87,  90,  231, 

234,  237;  suggestions  for,  79,  80,   231,   233, 

235,  236,  237,  279-283. 
Word  study,  36. 

Words,  kinds,  to  correspond  with  kinds  of 
ideas,  65-66. 

Work:  right  sort  of  pride  in,  if  well  done,  189; 
men  needed  for  all  kinds  of,  145;  not  kind, 
but  quality  of,  makes  the  man,  156,  17(i.  INN. 

World:  studied  as  a  whole,  131,  145;  people  of 
the,  seen  in  their  home  life,  131. 

"Worlds"  or  phases  of  life  to  which  men  adjust 
themselves,  all  o;ie,  interrelated,  separated 
temporarily  for  convenience,  201-202. 

Writing.     See  Penmanship  and  Language. 


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